The ancient Roman saw the building. Roman building methods

The architecture of Ancient Rome is hereditary. It rests on the achievements of ancient Greek architects. The colossal territory stretching from the British Isles to Egypt played an important role in shaping the culture of the empire. The conquered provinces (Syria, Gaul, Ancient Germany, etc.) enriched the work of Roman builders with local features.

The architecture of ancient Rome was the result of the development of art ancient civilization. She gave many new types of buildings: libraries, villas, archives, palaces.

The development of ancient Roman culture went through the following stages:

Royal;

Republican;

Imperial.

Roman architects were inspired by the works of masters from the occupied territories, who were brought to the capital of the empire. They especially admired the achievements of the Greeks and studied their philosophy, poetry, oratory. Greek architects and sculptors flocked to Rome. The first sculptures were created as Greek copies.

The Romans, unlike their neighbors the Greeks, the poets and philosophers, had a utilitarian temperament. They were conquerors, lawyers and builders. Therefore, the architecture of Ancient Rome was applied in nature. It reached its greatest prosperity in engineering buildings: bridges, baths, aqueducts, roads.

The ancient sights of Rome can be assessed today very ambiguously. An impressive arena in which no form of torture was considered too cruel. Places of worship where the gods were often worshiped through ritual sacrifices that shock us today. Pleasure palaces where sexual corruption was not only accepted but even encouraged. The state of Ancient Rome attracts the interest of many researchers and history buffs.

Who were the people who created such grandiose structures in Rome? What made them build ever greater monuments, and at what cost? What were the laws The answers to these questions are very interesting, although to this day we do not know everything. The ancient sights of Rome are really impressive. We will present you some of them.

Coliseum

Crowds of people were attracted to the arena by the bloody spectacle. Sometimes in the Roman Colosseum there were spectators up to 50 thousand people. All of them longed to see scenes of indescribable horror. To know, priests, senators, emperors, slaves, ordinary people had fun seeing the bloody scenes.

Gladiators fought each other wearing heavy armor. Often they beat the opponent to death. In the arena, wild hungry animals were set against each other, released to fight with a man. The goal pursued by the participants in these confrontations was to tear each other to shreds. Some features of Ancient Rome are incomprehensible to us today.

Filling the performance arena with water

Various types of special effects were used on stage. These included filling the arena with water to simulate naval battles. How did the ancient Romans manage to fill the Colosseum with water?

Everything is actually quite simple: a system of reservoirs was filled from the aqueducts. They were right above the arena, on the slope. These resourceful ancient Romans pumped water down from aqueducts and then through tanks to the center of the Colosseum. A more difficult question is how they managed to then pump out the water?

It is believed that the ancient Romans built a sewer system. However, researchers have yet to answer this question, since very little excavation has been carried out in the Colosseum until today. The ancient sights of Rome have not yet been sufficiently studied.

Bloody competition

The main Roman myths were part of the play. And the worse they were, the better. Christians and criminals were often placed in the most dangerous roles.

In the Roman Colosseum, bloody competitions have prevailed since its opening, which took place in 72 AD. The opening ceremony was hosted by Emperor Titus. It lasted 100 days. An unprecedented massacre occurred on the opening day: about 5,000 animals died.

Colosseum - gift of Vespasian

The Colosseum is a gift to the Romans from Titus' predecessor and father. Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, began to rule in 69 AD. This time was a critical moment in the history of Rome. Hundreds of years had passed since the empire was founded by Augustus, and now its future was very uncertain.

Chaos reigned as the Four Emperors began to change in one year. After that, Vespasian, who ruled Syria, seized power.

A clever diplomat and hero, he easily gained the support of the Senate and was declared emperor. After that, having suppressed the rebellion on the Rhine and the Jewish rebellion in Jerusalem, he focused on domestic problems.

Vespasian over a ten-year reign saved the treasury from the deficit left by his predecessor Nero. He also began to build a lot of the most grandiose enterprise was the Colosseum. It was conceived as a symbol of the success and power of Vespasian.

Construction of the Colosseum

It took more than 10 years to complete the construction. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavius ​​Amphitheatre. Many laborers and slaves were used for its construction. Some of the builders were prisoners taken by Vespasian after winning the Jerusalem campaign.

Until now, the name of the architect who created the Colosseum is unknown. One of the most amazing features of this attraction is the highly sophisticated crowd control system. The amphitheater originally had 80 entrances. All of them led to certain sectors. Places were divided into tiers.

The fate of the Colosseum

The last games known from written sources were played in the 6th century AD. They completed this cruel competition, which amused the once bloodthirsty Romans. The Colosseum was not used for a long time after that. It was partially destroyed, like many other ancient sights of Rome. A terrible earthquake occurred in the 9th century, as a result, most of it was destroyed.

Later, the Colosseum began to be used as a quarry. Rich marble cladding was torn off, which began to be used in the construction of churches and palaces. Still intact is part of the four levels that originally existed. To this day, the Colosseum is a testament to both the cruelty of the ancient Romans and the skill of the people who built the sights of Ancient Rome. It attracts many tourists to Italy.

Pantheon

The temples of ancient Rome are impressive. The most famous of them is the Pantheon. In the 1930s, Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator, conceived an original propaganda campaign. In particular, he drew parallels between the glory of the new regime and the greatness that the empire of ancient Rome possessed. This led to a lot of archaeological research and excavations throughout the state. Due to the flood of the Tiber, deposits of earth appeared on many monuments, which completely covered them. because of its proximity to the river was badly damaged. This structure was built approximately from 27 to 23 BC.

Architectural plan discovered by workers

The workers, having dug 6-7 meters into the ground, discovered the pavement, which was made of massive blocks. However, the Second World War soon began, and for some time this discovery was forgotten. Only 20 years later, in 1964, Roman experts began to study this place again. A full-size architectural plan was carved into the pavement. It is obvious that the yard served as a workshop for a construction site. The whole question is for what.

None of the existing monuments corresponded to the project. One of the experts in 1992 solved the riddle. It seems that these plans were made for the Pantheon. Many parts of the structure exactly matched, but not all.

First Pantheon

The Pantheon is a famous temple that was built in honor of the emperor, as well as to worship the gods of Rome. What we see now is not the first Pantheon. The temple was originally the idea of ​​Marcus Agrippa, a powerful Roman general. Construction began in 27 BC and was completed two years later. However, in 64 AD. a great fire destroyed the Pantheon.

Rebuilding the Pantheon

After this, in 118 AD, rebuilding began, which was led by He was an amateur architect who participated in many building projects in Rome.

The Pantheon was built after 10 years of work. Adrian dedicated the building to its first builder. That is why the name of Mark Agrippa is visible on the facade.

The Pantheon has a huge rotunda made of brick and stone, as well as a vault that forms a dome. The Pantheon is a square building, 43 meters high and wide. Its walls are 7.5 meters thick, and each of the bronze doors weighs 20 tons.

Where there are now paintings on biblical motifs, marble statues of the gods of Rome used to stand.

Baths of Caracalla

The sights of Ancient Rome also include the Baths of Caracalla. These ancient baths are similar to modern wellness centers. They are the largest and most ornate of all the public baths built in ancient Rome. Their construction was started by Septimius Severus in 206 AD. And the construction was completed in 216. Opened by the son of Septimius.

Therm decorations, their use

These buildings of ancient Rome were really richly decorated: walls lined with marble, mosaic floors, stucco ceilings.

The terms occupied a large and beautifully decorated area, which was used as a gym. Here men went in for sports: they threw a spear, a disk, boxed. Entry to the baths, even for slaves, was free. Initially, women and men washed together, but at the beginning of the 2nd century, Hadrian forbade this.

The invasion is ready, the destruction of the term

These buildings of ancient Rome continued to be used until 535 AD. At this time, the Goths invaded and broke the aqueduct. The same fate befell the Baths of Caracalla, like many other monuments of Ancient Rome. They were partially destroyed. The large sums required for their repair disappeared when the empire collapsed, the surrounding world familiar to the inhabitants disappeared. Ancient Rome was fading away.

In the Middle Ages, marble and bronze were torn off the walls, and the beautiful sculptures that adorned the baths ended up in the collections of Roman popes and the aristocracy.

Forum

Not much remains of the majestic Roman Forum. It was the center of life in Rome. The Forum appeared in the 4th century BC. In its place today, only fragments of some monuments, many overturned stones and a couple of vaults have survived. We note right away that the imperial forums adjoin the Roman Forum, which are not part of the Roman Forum, although they are similar to it both in purpose and in name.

Reconstruction of the Forum by Augustus

The construction of the forum was accidental. There was no systematic plan. Therefore, the forum lacked harmony. During the time of Augustus it was completely reconstructed. This emperor removed most of the structures, while paving and expanding the territory. Now what the forum looked like during the period of the republic is a mystery. Many buildings were wooden, so they were demolished or destroyed. August used only stone and cement for construction.

Vestals

The temples of ancient Rome in the forum include a temple dedicated to the Roman people. She was one of the most important and ancient goddesses. It was associated with the heart and also with fire. It was believed that this fire represented the spiritual power of the whole country. She was served by priestesses who made sure that the fire did not go out. They always had to remain virgins, otherwise they were expected to be executed. Vestals lived near the temple. They were chosen from aristocratic families aged 6 to 10 years. For 30 years they had to serve at the temple. At the end of their service, these women were thus at least 36 years old. To many they seemed too old to marry. Most of the Vestals remained priestesses until the end of their lives.

It far surpassed the samples created by the Greeks in grandeur, functionalism and scale. In part, the invention of good cement played an important role here. But no less important was the pride of the emperors, who over the centuries tried to surpass their predecessors, erecting ever more majestic, grandiose and richly decorated monuments.

Roman building methods: Walls. The method of construction of the main walls of Roman buildings. The composition of the masonry mortar. Vaults on the solution: Arrays and fastenings. Archery brick frame. Scheme of masonry vaults. The main types of arch on the solution. Vault supports. Wooden parts and small construction details. Wooden structure: Roman rafters. Farms with puff. Timber floors of ancient Rome. Rafters of the Pantheon. Bridge farms. The use of metal for farms. Roof. Lightweight building structures. Division of labor in Roman construction. Exterior decoration of buildings and structures of ancient Rome.

Considered architectural objects Ancient Rome: Arch of the Pantheon. The Baths of Agrippa. The baths of Diocletian and Caracalla. Amphitheater in Capua. Aqueduct at Frejus. Amphitheater in Saintes. Aqueduct at Eleusis. Propylaea Appia. Basilica of Maxentius. Church of St. Peter. Basilica of Trajan. Basilica of Fano. Caesar's Bridge on the Rhine. Trajan's bridge on the Danube. Tomb of the Julii in Saint-Remy.

From Greek architecture, which is, as it were, a pure cult of the idea of ​​harmony and beauty, we are moving on to architecture that is essentially utilitarian in nature. Architecture is transformed by the Romans into a function of omnipotent power, for which the construction of public buildings is a means to strengthen this power. The Romans build in order to assimilate conquered nations by turning them into slaves. Greek architecture comes to light in temples, Roman - in baths and amphitheatres.

The methods of construction testify to the organizational genius, which has unlimited resources and knows how to use them. The architecture of the Romans is the ability to organize the unlimited labor force placed at their disposal by conquest. The essence of their methods can be expressed in a nutshell: these are techniques that require nothing but physical strength. The body of buildings turns into an array of rubble and mortar, that is, into an erected monolith, or a kind of artificial rock.

Such are the monuments of the empire; but before reaching such deliberate simplicity, Roman architecture undergoes a series of changes corresponding to the influences acting on society as a whole: it is Etruscan in the period of the Etruscan civilization associated with the names of ancient kings; relations with the Greek colonies in Lucania then forever leave an indelible Greek imprint on it. But finally, she masters her technical methods only with the approach of the era of emperors and at the first direct contact with Asia. However, Rome is careful not even at that time to give its methods an official character and to disseminate them in full in all countries absorbed by the empire; a government granting free self-government to the provinces and municipal autonomy to the cities would not impose its architecture where it did not even impose its own civil laws.

Rome took into account local traditions extensively; we distinguish, therefore, in the uniformity of principles which are, as it were, the seal of the central power, a series of schools of definite character, i.e., an art moved everywhere by the same spirit, but whose methods of application retain in each country the imprint of local originality.

In the study of Roman art, therefore, one should first of all distinguish between the following epochs: Etruscan and Greco-Etruscan; having reached the era when the system of artificial monolithic structures, which is characteristic of the empire, is introduced into architecture, we will have to reckon with the common elements belonging to Roman art as a whole, and further - with local deviations dividing it into schools.

ROMAN BUILDING METHODS
WALLS

On the figure 306 pictured method of constructing the main walls of Roman buildings. Bricklayers lay alternating layers of crushed stone and mortar between two facings of brick or fine material A, using mobile scaffoldings laid on crossbeams of unhewn logs as scaffolding.

To connect this crushed stone, brick leveling arrays up to 0.6 m in size aside, as well as log crossbars cut flush with the wall and remaining in the masonry in the form of opening stones, serve.

In order to avoid uneven sedimentation, which could cause the lining to separate from the wall mass, the Romans sought to achieve a proportion of the mortar in the lining, equivalent to its proportion in the backfill. They either used triangular bricks for cladding, which were cheaper than quadrangular ones and gave the best connection, then they were content with slabs of building stone, which they laid in horizontal rows or obliquely at an angle of 45 °, which Vitruvius greatly condemns.

The crushed stone laid in the thickness of the wall was never pre-mixed with the mortar. In other words, Roman masonry is not concrete; it is similar to the latter in composition and has almost the same hardness, but is completely different from it in the way it is prepared.

Rice. 306 - 307

Temporary molds are never used for it, and agglomeration by compression was carried out only in so far as the lining itself was sufficiently stable to withstand the tearing forces arising from compaction, i.e. mainly in the two cases indicated on figure 307: when facing with stone B and if the facing (detail C) is laid out in the form of stepped walls.

Filling is carried out in both cases in the form of a real backfill from alternating thick layers of mortar and crushed stone; the latter is impregnated with a solution due to increased compaction. We see in both cases the principle already indicated in relation to the masonry of vaults with circles, namely, the desire for maximum expenditure on temporary auxiliary devices. This reasonable prudence appears again in mortar vaults and guides all the constructive methods of the Romans.

VODS IN SOLUTION

Arrays and fasteners.- As mentioned above, the vault is nothing more than an overhanging continuation of the straight wall that carries it. Rows of crushed stone and mortar, both in the vault itself and in direct supports, are invariably laid horizontally. We never find here layers in the radial direction, as in masonry. The arch is an array like a block with natural layers, in which a huge recess was carved. Masonry in concentric layers would overly complicate the work, which was often forced labor, and the Romans strongly reject such a system.

The laying of such an array could only be carried out on a rigid support, incapable of deformation and, apparently, requiring large expenditures. The rigidity of the form itself was all the more necessary, since the slightest deflection of the circle could cause a rupture, and, consequently, the death of the entire structure, since the strength of the array was due to its monolithic structure. A necessary condition for the construction of these vaults is the perfect integrity of their arc.

The merit of the Romans was the ability to reconcile the requirements of a rigid form with a minimum expenditure on forests. They achieved this in the following ways. Instead of erecting circles capable of withstanding the entire weight of the huge array that forms the vault, the latter is divided into a solid skeleton and a filling mass. The material for the core is burnt brick, which is light in weight and gives extraordinary resistance. The skeleton thus turns into a simple skeleton of bricks or a kind of openwork vault. It exerts little pressure on the circles it replaces after its completion to take on the burden of the infill masses it merges with as the building is erected.

An openwork brick frame sometimes forms a continuous network on the inside of the cladding. Usually it is reduced, on the basis of economic considerations and the desire for greater lightness, to a series of openwork, unrelated arches ( drawing 308, A). Individual arches are often replaced ( drawing 308, B) by a solid fastening of flatly laid bricks, covering circles like a vaulted flooring. For this shell, very large samples of bricks are taken (0.45 m and even 0.6 m aside), which are bound with plaster, and the seams of the shell are reinforced with a second layer of brick slabs.

For very large spans, double brick decks are made. This kind of flooring forms a vault along a curve and is distinguished by extraordinary strength. In Italy, especially in Rome, vaulted ceilings are still built with such flat bricks. However, this lightweight structure would have seemed too fragile to the ancient Romans, and they used it only as a support for the cast mass during its construction.

Judging by the methods of modern Roman masons, it can be assumed that the Romans erected them directly without circling, according to the scheme on figure 309. Laying starts at the same time from all four corners and advances gradually in a checkerboard pattern. Each brick is supported on both sides by the force of the mortar; gradual hatching and serial numbering make it possible to trace these stages of masonry according to the scheme.

There is no doubt that the Romans used this method for arches of ordinary sizes. For very large spans, as for example in the baths of Caracalla, the support for the fastenings of the flooring served, in all likelihood, very light circles.

Above the spans of window openings, light unloading arches were made in the thickness of the wall, which, at first glance, could have been built without circles, but the Romans would never have made this mistake, which deprives the unloading system of its significance. All unloading arches were erected along circles and subsequently filled with masonry. In the Pantheon, the vaulted flooring, along which the arches were folded, is still preserved.

The main types of arch on the solution.- On the figure 310 two types of fasteners are indicated in relation to the spherical and cross vaults. They are very complex in masonry, but are erected using backfill almost as simply as a box vault; not without reason they become more and more numerous as the system of monolithic buildings spreads.

The greatest vault left to us by the Romans, vault of the pantheon, is a dome; in the so-called Baths of Agrippa there is a spherical niche on fasteners made of meridian arches (B); huge the baths of Diocletian and Caracalla covered with cross vaults, and some of them have diagonal fastenings (A), while others have fastenings made of brick laid flat (C).

The use of fasteners was the most effective means of simplifying the construction; however, one should not think that it was widely used.

This resolution of the problem certainly prevails only in Roman Campania. It is systematically applied in Rome and dominates only in the city itself and its environs. This system is already disappearing as it moves north beyond Verona and stops south of Naples. Amphitheater in Capua is, apparently, the southern limit of its distribution.

We should look in vain for this system in Gaul; the Gallo-Roman vaults of the Parisian terms are erected, like Roman vaults, in regular rows, but no fastening passes between the array and the circles. The only equivalent of fastenings recognized in Gaul is a thin stone shell covering the circle and acting as a vaulted flooring. term of Caracalla (aqueduct at Frejus, amphitheater in Saintes and etc.).

In Africa vaults were often built from hollow pottery tubes; the latter can be laid, owing to their extraordinary lightness, without auxiliary supports. Byzantine architecture would later use these techniques. In the eastern regions of the empire, we finally meet the Persian system of construction in vertical segments, which gained predominance in the Byzantine era.

Aqueduct at Eleusis traversing the underground part Propylaea Appia, resembles in all its details Asian vaults; under the Roman walls enclosing the temple in Magnesia, there is a vault erected in vertical segments without circles. This system has dominated Constantinople since the time of Constantine.

The sail vault is almost unknown to Rome. As the only timid attempt at such a code, one can point to the code in Baths of Caracalla. Its location, shown in figure 311, testifies to the extraordinary inexperience of the builders.

It does not have the geometric shape of a spherical triangle, but is a kind of monastic arch of the vault, spreading over a continuous concave plane with a vertical seam corresponding to the edge of the incoming corner. This is only a single and very imperfect case of the use of sails and, in all likelihood, nothing more than an inept imitation of some oriental model.

In order to see a pronounced vault on sails, it is necessary to travel to the Roman East, where it appears already from the 4th century BC. and is found both in the most ancient cisterns of Constantinople and in the basilica in Philadelphia. The arch on sails becomes the predominant element of architecture there in the era of the Byzantine Empire.

SUPPORTS FOR DOMS

A cast vault is, whatever its methods of construction, an artificial monolith, and, as such, it cannot overturn its supports without bursting. Theoretically, one can assume the presence of a vault that does not develop lateral thrust and is held, like a metal arch, solely by the action of elastic forces developing in its mass. But in fact, simultaneously with the compression that the masonry resists, a lateral thrust inevitably arises, to which it poorly resists.

Tensile forces are prevented ( figure 312) by the fact that the arch is pushed between the compressive ailerons, which look like modern buttresses, but never protrude from the inner surface of the wall. They are a kind of internal supporting organs. Example on Figure 312 adopted from the construction system of the great vaulted nave Basilica of Maxentius completed under Constantine. Its central nave is covered with a cross vault on supports, which are eperons E, connected in pairs by box vaults V. The wall that closes the nave is depicted under the letter P. It contains buttresses and allows you to use the entire intermediate space S.

To destroy the thrust of a giant hemispherical domes of the Pantheon serves as the drum carrying it ( drawing 313). This drum is lightened, regardless of the voids in the mass itself, by deep niches communicating, as in space S in Figure 312, with the interior of the central room, of which they are, as it were, an appendage. Separate parts of buildings with more complex plans are grouped by the Romans with great care, so that the walls of one part serve as supports for adjacent vaults. They rigorously strive to satisfy all the requirements of equilibrium, without resorting to the erection of inert masses that would play only the role of buttresses. The plan of the baths of Caracalla, which will be given later, is a vivid example of such a balanced arrangement of arrays of vaulted rooms. The idea is the same everywhere: to calmly take on the execution of grandiose plans due to the maximum savings both on the elements of the supports and on the ancillary structures.

WOODEN PARTS AND SMALL STRUCTURAL PARTS

Roman vaults were never protected by roofs; they were directly covered with tiles, which were given a slope to ensure the drainage of rainwater. The Romans did not see the point in placing a vault under the roof, which in itself is a ceiling; thus, Roman buildings are covered with either vaults or rafters.

Wooden structure

Rafter.- Roman rafters represent a significant advance over previous structural systems. The Greeks knew only rafters with load transfer to girders, and we have already mentioned above what careful carpentry this system required and how difficult it was to cover large spans.

The Romans introduce draw trusses, in which the weight of the roof is converted by the rafters into tensile forces; puffs reduce the latter to zero. The French word "arbaletrier" (stretched bow), used for the rafter leg, perfectly expresses the character of the new system of construction; in the Greek rafters, only vertical forces acted, while the new system works thanks to the run, which becomes a puff like a stretched bow.

The wooden floors of Ancient Rome have finally disappeared, but we have the opportunity to restore them according to the tradition of Christian Rome. Preserved measurements of the ancient church of st. Petra, founded by Constantine, and "St. Paul Outside the Walls, built by Honorius. These floors, renewed farm after farm as they deteriorated, take us, like links in an unbroken chain, to the time of the Roman Empire.

All farms correspond to one common and uniform system ( drawing 314, B); the roof rests on two rafter legs embedded in a puff, the latter being lightened, in turn, in the middle by a headstock, which is not a stand, as in Greek architecture, but a real hanging headstock, as in modern rafters. Trusses are usually connected in pairs, so that the roof rests not on a series of evenly distributed individual trusses, but on a series of paired trusses. Each such pair of rafters has one common headstock. The antiquity of this construction system is confirmed by the bronze rafters that have come down to us in the portico of the Pantheon, dating back to the best times of the Roman Empire. Their common features are preserved in Serlio's sketches.

Rafters of the Pantheon had a curved run that served as a puff (A). Furthermore, the only way to interpret Vitruvius' instructions regarding the large span trusses is to consider these trusses as consisting of two rafter legs ( capreoli), which are embedded in the puff ( transtrum).

Only combinations based on the use of tightening made it possible to block the huge spans of Roman buildings, reaching, for example, Trajan's Basilica 75 feet and Basilica of Fano- 60 feet.

The extremely rare use of oblique bonds should be noted. The rafters of the Pantheon are barely divided into triangles; in the churches of St. Peter and "St. Paul outside the walls "there are no bandages, no trusses under the ridge. It is felt that the Romans had not yet freed themselves from the influence of the Greeks, for whom the wooden floors were nothing more than a transfer of the masonry system onto wood.

Roman builders took the greatest care to prevent fires. The gaps between the rafters of the church "St. Paul outside the walls" ( drawing 314, C) are filled not with flammable purlins, but with a flooring of large bricks, on which tiles are laid. In order to prevent the fire from spreading from one slope to another, a stone wall C was erected along the ridge, serving as a diaphragm.

Similar precautions were also taken in the theater in Orange: the walls rise above the roof there and can, if necessary, stop the spread of fire (Figure 292).

Finally, in Syria we find examples of ceilings along rafters, where the roof is interrupted at certain intervals by tympanums on the arches, replacing the rafters and serving as an obstacle to the spread of fire ( drawing 315).

Bridge farms.- We must mention two bridges among the wooden structures of the Romans: Caesar's bridge on the Rhine and Trajan's bridge on the Danube. Rhine bridge was built of beams on rows of inclined piles. The advantage of this system was that the beams "clung more firmly to the piles, the stronger the current." The assembly system was of great interest to researchers.

Farms Trajan's bridge known to us from the models and bas-reliefs of the Trajan's Column. It was an arched bridge; three concentric arches were pulled together by hanging fights. On the figure 316 shown in dotted lines are parts that seem to need to be added to the schematic in Trajan's column.

Thus restored, the Danube Bridge resembles in all respects the triple-arch trusses preserved in the monuments of India. Apollodorus, the builder of this bridge, was from Damascus, which lies on the way to India. Did he have any information about this type of Asiatic design?

The use of metal for farms.- We have already pointed out the use of walls and the use of bricks as purlins as a way of fighting fires. An expensive means to completely eliminate the danger of fire, which, however, the Romans did not stop at, was the replacement of wood with metal. The rafters of the most important buildings, such as the Ulpia Basilica or the portico of the Pantheon, were built of bronze. The trusses of the Pantheon do not deviate in terms of design from the wooden structure, but the cross-section of the parts is quite consistent with the use of metal; they are box shaped see section S in figure 314) and are made of three bronze sheets connected with bolts.

It can, apparently, be considered established that the large hall of cold baths in the baths of Caracalla also had a terrace, which lay on T-shaped iron beams, as a ceiling. Thus, the Romans were ahead of us in terms of rational profiling of metal parts.

Roof.- The roof was usually made of tiles or marble according to Greek patterns. In addition, the Romans sometimes used lamellar copper ( Pantheon) or lead (the temple at Puy-de-Dôme), and, finally, we meet on various sculptural monuments, such as Julius tomb in Saint-Remy, images of tiles in the form of fish scales, similar to the one with which the Greeks covered their round buildings and which undoubtedly had a type on the inside, like modern flat tiles.

LIGHT DESIGNS

Roman architecture is not limited to the great works of official architecture. We too willingly pay attention only to the latter, and meanwhile, along with the majestic official architecture that strikes us, private architecture still existed in its entirety, which deserves at least a brief mention.

Until the era of Vitruvius, the walls of Roman houses were built exclusively from raw brick, broken clay or wood. While monolithic masonry was used for public buildings, for private buildings they were still content with traditional walls made of dried clay or rather rough masonry of poorly hewn stone smeared with lime mortar. Masonry made of building stone with lime mortar, which became widespread in the Middle Ages, thus comes from the private architecture of the Romans.

We find in Pompeian houses not the concrete vaults common to large buildings, but the ceilings laid out in an arc of a circle, which increases their stability. We see from the image on figure 317 that the skeleton of the building is made of reeds, the gaps between which are filled with reed weaving, plastered on the inside.

The Romans also knew double walls, which were excellent protection against dampness and excessive fluctuations in temperature; an example of these is Hadrian's villa and various buildings adjacent to earthen mounds.

DIVISION OF LABOR IN THE ROMAN CONSTRUCTION

Let's sum up the monumental architecture of the Romans. If the spirit of economy inherent in them is manifested in the details of constructive methods, then in the general distribution of labor their organizational genius shines through: the methodical distribution of duties has nowhere reached such a level.

For each type of work there was a special workshop of workers with a certain qualification and tradition, and a careful study of large architectural monuments convinces us of a systematic division of labor between these work shifts, which had a delimited special purpose. So, for example, we see at the head of the walls Colosseum (Coliseum) that rows of hewn stone are not connected with the masonry that fills them. The connection between these two kinds of construction, although desirable from the point of view of stability, would make the work of masons dependent on masons; therefore communication is sacrificed to the obvious advantage of a precise division of labor.

This system is especially pronounced when decorating the body of buildings: There is an extremely small number of buildings, such as the Pantheon, in which the columns were installed simultaneously with the erection of walls; usually, the decorative parts were prepared during the laying of the walls and installed later, which gave a great advantage in terms of speed of construction.

The Greeks finish buildings by processing the architectural parts themselves; with the Romans, this is only a surface cladding. The Romans first erect a building, then with the help of brackets marble is hung on the walls or they are covered with a layer of plaster. Such a method is inevitable in architecture, where the structure of the array is not amenable to artistic processing, but it had the most unfortunate consequences from a purely artistic point of view.

The habit of the Romans to consider separately the decoration and construction of buildings inevitably led to the fact that they came to regard these factors as completely independent of each other. The decoration became little by little an arbitrary decoration, and the division of labor, which rendered such valuable services in respect of the regular course of work, seems to have hastened, as no other cause, the fall of Roman art, perverting its forms.

OUTDOOR FURNITURE

In their contemptuous indifference to everything that had nothing to do with world domination, the Romans seemed to deliberately seek to renounce their rights to originality in architecture; they themselves present their architecture to us as a simple borrowing from Greece or as a luxury item, and they treated the works of this art as fashionable trinkets.

In fact, the Romans had, especially in the days of the republic, quite original and great architecture. It was distinguished by its own imprint of grandeur, or, in the words of Vitruvius, "significance", the influence of which even the Athenians experienced when they called an architect from Rome to build a temple in honor of Olympian Zeus.

The elements of Roman decorative art, like the whole civilization of the Romans, are of twofold origin: they are associated both with Etruria and with Greece. Roman architecture as a whole is a mixed art; it combines forms derived from the Etruscan dome with ornamental details of the Greek architrave; Etruria gave the Romans the arch, Greece the orders.

August Choisy. History of architecture. August Choisy. Histoire De L "Architecture

It is generally accepted that the primitive buildings of Rome came from the Etruscan people, perhaps even built by them. It was logically a continuation of the line of Greek architecture. The buildings of the Roman Empire retained the basis of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch. A circular arch is a rounded stone covering that connected the abutments to each other. This helped to arrange the stones in a radius circle for even pressure on them. Using new techniques for building structures, the Romans could bring creativity to new buildings. Theoretical new knowledge helped to build temples of large sizes, the ability to erect multi-storey buildings and buildings. In terms of the introduction of groin vaults and box vaults, the Romans succeeded over the Greeks and made more refined buildings.

In order for the arches to stand securely, the columns that used to be popular were no longer used. Roman architects began to build huge walls and pilasters, and the columns became just a decorative decoration. This was used almost everywhere, but there were also buildings in which the use of columns was more appropriate. At the same time, the styles of the columns practically did not change, the Romans settled on the standard Greek version.

In general, Roman architecture was directly dependent on the Greek directions of architecture. However, the Romans tried more to emphasize their strength and independence in order to intimidate and suppress foreign peoples. They did not spare money for decorating their buildings, each building was magnificent and richly decorated. At the same time, from the point of view of the architect, they tried to make each structure exemplary. Mostly buildings were built for practical needs, but temples also occupied an important place among the structures.

History of architecture of ancient Rome

As an independent branch of world art, the architecture of Ancient Rome was formed for a very long time, approximately in the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. Despite the fact that many buildings of those times have already crumbled, they regularly continue to fascinate with their remnants and individual elements. The Roman Empire was one of the great, if not the greatest, that laid the foundation for a new era. public places of that time could accommodate tens of thousands of people (basilicas, amphitheaters, trade markets), while there was always something to strive for. Religion also did not recede into the background; the list of building structures in Rome included temples, altars, and tombs.

Comparing with the whole world, even historians came to the conclusion that it was difficult or simply impossible to find equal rivals to the architecture of Rome and Roman engineering. Aqueducts, bridges, roads, fortresses, canals as architectural objects are only a small part of the list of what they used on all fronts. They changed the principles of ancient Greek architecture, primarily the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.

Great importance in the formation of Roman culture was given to the style of the Hellenes, who were supporters of architecture with a huge scope and the development of urban centers. But humanism and the ability to inherit the harmonious Greek style in Rome were omitted, preferring the exaltation of imperious emperors. They sharply emphasized the power of the army. Hence all the pathos, which was the basis of many decorations for buildings and structures.

The variety of buildings and the general scope of buildings in Rome is much higher than in Greece. The construction of huge buildings became possible due to a change in the technical foundations in construction. This is how new brick-concrete structures appear. They made it possible to block large spans, speeding up the process of construction work. It was also important that with the use of such construction methods, professional craftsmen were increasingly abandoned, and trusted slaves and unskilled workers. This significantly reduced the cost of construction.

Stages of development of Roman architecture

І period

The stages of development of Roman architecture can be divided into 4 periods. The first and shortest starts from the time of the founding of ancient Rome and ends in the 2nd century BC. BC e. This period is not rich in architectural monuments, and those that appeared were the legacy of the Etruscans. Almost everything that was built during this period was publicly available. It brought collective benefits to the settlements. This category included canals for cleansing the city from sewage, which, with the help of them, fell into the Tiber. Mamertine prison and the first basilicas can also be attributed to buildings that were useful.

II period

The second stage is called "Greek". From the middle of the II century, a serious influence of Greek architecture on Roman begins. A strong influence was manifested until the end of the republican rule (31 BC). It is believed that at this time the first marble temples began to appear, replacing the usual types of stones and travertine. In their design, they were very similar to the Greek ones, but the architects tried to make noticeable differences.

Roman temples throughout these years looked oblong with 4 corners. The foundation was usually high, with an attached staircase on the front side. Climbing the stairs, you find yourself next to the columns. Going down a little deeper, there is a door that leads to the main hall. The main lighting comes through this door, so it is often open.

Together with such temples of the ancient Greek type, the Romans erected, in honor of the Gods, temples of a round shape. These were mostly their own ideas with the use of Greek elements. One of these can be considered the Temple of the Portun, surrounded by 20 columns, this historical object has survived to this day. The cone-shaped marble roof is a good example of the Roman individual style.

The community of buildings included not only buildings associated with religion, but also many others:

• Tabularium - a huge building designed to preserve the archives;
• The wooden theater of Skavra is one of the most interesting buildings of this period. Includes over three hundred marble columns and bronze statues, could accommodate 80,000 visitors;
• The first stone theater was built in honor of the goddess Venus.

All history about them disappeared with them. However, it is worth noting that using modern 3D modeling technologies, it was proved that these structures were built very competently. For example, the "Stone Theatre" was located in such a way that the stage looked to the northeast. Since, under Augustus, performances and celebrations were traditionally held in the morning, all the sun's rays fell on the stage, and not on theatergoers.

III period

By significance, the most effective period in the history of Roman architecture. The beginning is considered from the time of the arrival of Augustus to the republican throne and ends in 138 AD. e.

In the technologies of the Romans, the active use of concrete begins. A new stage in the construction of basilicas, circuses, and libraries begins. There were trials, identifying the best chariot riders. A new type of monumental art, the triumphal arch, is gaining popularity. At the same time, the technique was constantly improved with the help of new constructions timed to coincide with the new victories of the future empire.

Roman art was not as elegant as Greek structures, but the technical skill of construction remained at the highest level for centuries. The Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of antiquity) and the Pantheon temple (built in the name of the Gods) become world famous.

The introduction of features of Greek architecture gained massive popularity and continued to stride into the western and northern regions of Europe. Most Greek architects became famous with the help of the Romans, who commissioned Greek copies that were better preserved than the originals. The Romans, unlike the Greeks, adhered to their concept of sculptural traditions. They made busts of their ancestors to show the prototypes of their kind. The Greeks, on the other hand, used such sculptures as works of art in the house. This simplicity and vivid individuality of Roman portrait art show it from a new side for us.

Over the course of this period, all architectural structures go through stages of development, improvement and increase the level of majesty. Elements of luxury are widely used and for the first time the features of oriental art begin to slip.

IV period

After the departure from the power of Hadrian, Roman architectural art quickly begins its decline. All those decorations that were previously used begin to seem redundant and out of place, and their use is less and less correct. This period continues until the full formation of Christianity and the departure of paganism far into the background. The period of decline is characterized by the fact that every ruler wants to go down in history with the help of majestic buildings.

This period also continues to be distinguished by oriental elements, which are more and more clearly traced in architectural art. They begin to prevail over the classics of the genre. Particularly eloquent evidence of this is the construction under the last rulers of the empire in such remote areas of possessions as Syria and Arabia. This was noticeable by the change in the swelling of the surface of the roofs, the abundance of unnecessary accessories. Often mysterious, fantastic forms were erected, which were considered symbols of the eastern direction of architecture.

The greatness of Rome in the Temples

One of the first buildings erected by Augustus, dedicated to the deified idol Julius Caesar. Built in 29 BC. The temple was built in the modest style of the Ionic order. The place of Caesar's cremation was concentrated separately. In the decorated hall there are designated seats for speakers, which replaced the tribunal that existed here, concentrated for many years in the western part.

Altar of Peace

The monumental building of ancient Rome, which inscribed in history the victory of Augustus over the Spaniards and Gauls. It was built in 13 BC. e. In appearance, it looked like a fence with right angles 6 m high, in the center of which there was a step with an altar. There were 2 through passages along the perimeter of the fence, with the help of which it was possible to approach the altar. On the opposite walls were depicted processions of Augustus to offer sacrifice to the altar.

The memo had in its personification particles of all the cultures of the predecessors of Roman architecture. By the type of construction, one can judge the Italian style, and by the location of the ornament along the bottoms and tops, Etruscan principles. The exquisite craftsmanship of the relief of the altar speaks of a strong Greek influence.

Temple of Mars Ultor

One of the largest temples in Rome. The width of the facade alone is about 35 m. The columns are erected up to 18 m. The interior decoration was mainly of marble with wooden ceilings. Having a solemn appearance inside, the temple evoked a feeling of delight of the people present in it. The date of creation of this historical monument is considered 2 BC. e. Greek elements are traced in almost all stages of architecture.

Pantheon

The Pantheon is a special place in Rome. The second name is "Temple of all gods". The mass of temples of ancient times was built by order of the emperors, including the Pantheon was no exception. The Pantheon was dedicated primarily to the two gods Venus and Mars, it was they who were considered the guardians of the Julius family. The building consisted of three parts, which were intertwined. It was named after the architect who performed the work, but it is believed that the Pantheon was his pseudonym. The Pantheon was built in 118-128, years later it was restored several times. To date, only a small part of it has remained, which does not allow you to enjoy the full majesty of the temple of that period.

Sculpture of Ancient Rome

The monumental art of the ancient Romans significantly lost to the Greeks. The Romans never managed to create the greatest sculptural monuments and compete with the Greeks on these frontiers. But it was still possible to enrich the plastic with its elements.

The best results were achieved in portrait art. The Roman people transferred their observation of every trait of a person and his unique individuality. Ideal portraits were created, as well as portraits in which one could see the human negative and the realism of the art form. With the help of sculptures, for the first time, they launched the propaganda of the civilization of society. They erected monuments to famous personalities, made constructions of triumph.

The architecture of Ancient Rome is based on two great civilizations - Greek and Etruscan. The Etruscans had excellent technologies for the construction of temples, houses, tombs. It was they who introduced the arch and vault. But, unlike the Greek ones, the Etruscan temples were built from short-lived materials, so little has survived to this day.

Etruscan arch in Perugia, Italy

However, there are objects by studying which you can get a lot of information about this culture. It is known that the supporting structure of the buildings was made of wood, bricks and terracotta coverings were used.

The Etruscan arch in Perugia is an intact example of a city gate.

Architecture of Ancient Rome: periods

Real Roman architecture, with original features that recycle Etruscan and Greek influences, is defined from the 2nd century BC.

Architecture of the Roman Monarchy

It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. At the beginning of its history, Rome was a monarchy. According to tradition, after the reign of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius ascended the throne, who improved the organization of the city. He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, an experienced Latin warrior who conquered the nearby cities. The fourth king was Anko Marzio, who built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber.

The Etruscan rulers followed - Tarquinius Priscus ordered the market square, Foro, to be covered with stone, built numerous temples and ordered to dig the sewers of Cloaca Maximus to dump dirty water. Servius Tullius built a wall around the city.

The monarchy ended with the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, who was expelled from the city in 509 BC, and Rome became a republic.

Architecture of the Roman Republic

During the Republic, which lasted almost five centuries, Rome was always at war. After the conquest of the Etruscans and other peoples living in the territory of today's Italy, the Roman Republic conquered the territories of Greece and other countries of the Mediterranean Sea. Construction was underway. To move the army, good roads were needed, a lot of them were built. road (lat. strata) was formed from several layers (ital. strato) and its surface was covered with stone slabs.

The architecture of the period of the Roman Republic pays great attention practical and functional aspects buildings.

Architecture of the Roman Empire

After the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire in 31 BC, there was a long period of prosperity for art and architecture. Under Emperor Augustus, then under Troyan and Hadrian, the architecture of the Roman Empire reached its magnificence and played an important role in propagating power.

Extensive evidence has been preserved relating to architecture, where the Romans demonstrate excellent skills in construction techniques, sculpture (portraits, reliefs that complement architecture), painting (frescoes, mosaics).

Christian era architecture

The period of barbarian invasions marks the decline of Roman architecture. A new era is coming - the Christian one.

Main characteristics of Roman architecture

Centinate. Wooden structure to support the vaults

1. In Roman architecture, of course, there is a great continuity with Greek art- symmetry, regularity of forms, the use of architectural orders (Doric, Tuscan, Ionic and Corinthian). In fact, instead of the Doric order, the Romans used the Tuscan order ( tuscanico/toscano), which is very similar to it, the only difference was that the column was smooth, without grooves ( flute).
2. From the Etruscans the Romans adopted arches and vaults, becoming the chief specialists in their use. During the construction of the arch and vaults, a temporary wooden structure was used for support - centinature ( centinatura). From a large number of arches standing one behind the other, the Romans formed a cylindrical vault ( volta a botte), and the intersection of two barrel vaults formed a groin vault ( volta a crociera). The first builders of real domes were also the Romans. One of the most beautiful domed vaults is the Pantheon.

Dome vaults in the architecture of ancient Rome

Materials and technologies

The Romans used bricks to build walls, arches, columns, floors. Marble, as an expensive material, was used much less frequently. A variety of brick shapes - elongated, square, triangular, pyramidal - helped to create strong structures and grips.

The production of bricks was also expensive, and a lot of labor was required for masonry.

That is why they were often replaced with blocks of tufa and travertine, or other materials. To speed up the construction of the walls, the Romans began to use artificial conglomerate or Roman concrete ( calcestruzzo).

Concrete was poured into wooden formwork, compacted with a rammer and, after it hardened, the formwork was removed. This method of building walls was called opus caementicium.

When the same technology was used to fill the cavities of two load-bearing walls made of brick or stone, it was called muratura a sacco. Thus, the Romans got thick, strong walls, saving time and resources. The technique was not reflected in the aesthetics, because. the concrete part was inside.

Architecture of Ancient Rome: building walls

External masonry walls can be characterized by the main building traditions −

• opus quadratum,
• opus reticulatum,
• opus incertum,
• opus latericium.

Opus quadratum

When working with such material as soft tuff, large stones in the form of a parallelepiped were cut and arranged in rows of the same height. (opus quadratum); if hard limestone was used, such as traventino, each element took on its own polygonal shape (opus poligonalis).

Opus reticulatum

With this technique, cement was poured between walls formed by small pyramidal stone blocks, the bases of which formed a regular diamond-shaped grid.

Ancient Roman stonework: opus quadratum and opus reticulatum

Opus incertum

AT opus incertum the stones are irregularly shaped and their arrangement seems almost random.

Opus latericium

Fired bricks of a rectangular shape (about 45 cm x 30 cm) were superimposed in an alternating order. Since the era of August, its use has become more frequent. Due to the fact that over time the thickness of the bricks and their color changed, it is easy to establish the chronological order of architectural structures.

Opus mixtum

Although brick was usually used uniformly (opus testaceum), there are examples of its use with other stones and rows of other masonry, creating an opus mixtum.

Stonework of Ancient Rome: opus latericium, opus inchertum, opus mixtum

Architecture and urban planning (urban planning)

Here are two different examples -

1. the city of Rome itself, which is unique in its development,
2. and building new cities.

The layout of most ancient Roman cities was rectangular, based on the principle of temporary camps of legionnaires - castrum.

City planning of ancient Rome

Namely, settlements were broken up and built up along two main streets - cardo (oriented from north to south) and Decumanus (from east to west). The intersection of these streets was assigned to the main square of the city - Foro.

Reconstruction of the layout of the city of Rimini

Roads, water pipes, sewerage, bridges were built in cities. Various buildings were built:

• houses for living (Domus, Insulae and Villas);
• for recreation (theaters, amphitheaters, circuses and baths);
• designed to worship the gods (temples);
• for political and administrative activities (Curia and Basilica)
• and festive monuments (triumphal arches and columns).

Brief video review-reconstruction of the architecture of Ancient Rome: