History of Northern Ireland. What is the history of Ireland? Oppression of the Irish: the development of the country under the leadership of the British

Alternative country names - Ireland is sometimes referred to as Galia or Eire.

Story

It occupies five-sixths of the Irish island, the second largest island in the British Isles. While the Irish national culture is relatively homogenous compared to the multiethnic cultures of other countries, the Irish people recognize some minor and major cultural differences that are uniquely traditional in Ireland, although the culture is very close to the British.

In 1922, which for some time was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, separated from Great Britain and became known as the Irish Free State (later Ireland), while a piece of Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain.

Northern Ireland occupies one sixth of the island. Almost ninety-five years have passed since the separation of Ireland and Northern Ireland, but this time was enough for the cultures of the countries to begin to differ from each other. Although they are close neighbors and have the same roots, there are significant differences in language and dialect, religion, government structure and politics, sports, music and business culture.

42 percent of the population of Northern Ireland still consider themselves Irish by nationality and ethnicity. Very often Northern Irish people point out the similarities between their national culture and the culture of Ireland, this is one of the reasons why Ireland and Northern Ireland should unite and be a single island nation.

The majority of the population in Northern Ireland, who consider themselves to be native Englishmen, they identify themselves with the political communities and trade union movements of Great Britain, therefore they do not seek to unite with Ireland, but want to maintain their traditional ties with Great Britain.

In the Irish Independent Republic, cultural differences are recognized between urban and rural areas (especially between the capital Dublin and the rest of the country), as well as between regional cultures, which are most often discussed in terms of the West, South, Midlands and North, which are the traditional Irish provinces and are called Connacht, Leinster and Ulster.

While the vast majority of Irish people identify themselves as ethnic Irish, some Irish citizens consider themselves Irish of British ancestry, this group is sometimes referred to as "Anglo-Irish" or "Western British". Another important cultural minority of Irish descent are the Peculiar Travelers, who have historically been an itinerant ethnic group known for their roles in the informal economy.

Representatives of this group were artisans, merchants and artists. There are also small religious minorities (eg Irish Jews) and simply ethnic minorities (eg Chinese, Indians and Pakistanis) who have retained many aspects of cultural life with their own distinct national cultures.

The rise of a nation

The nation that became the Irish was shaped over the course of two millennia as a result of heterogeneous forces, both internal and external to the island. Although there were several groups of people living on the island in prehistoric times, the Celtic migrations of the first millennium BC brought the language and many aspects of Gaelic society, and it is to these points that historians and politicians turn when they talk about national revival. Christianity was introduced in the fifth century AD, and Irish Christianity was associated with monasticism from the very beginning.

The Irish monks did much to preserve the European Christian heritage before and during the Middle Ages, and they preached their faith throughout the continent, made efforts to establish clergy, called people to serve their God and the church.

From the early ninth century, the Norwegians made explorations of the monasteries and settlements of Ireland, and by the next century they had established their own coastal communities and trading centers. The traditional Irish political system, based on five provinces (Meath, Connacht, Leinster and Ulster), includes many of Norse origin, and many of the Norman invaders settled in England after 1169 and took root there over the next four centuries.

The Anglo-Norman conquerors took most of the island into their possession, created feudalism and a peculiar structure of parliament on this land. There was a government and the rights of the people, the new system adopted the Irish language and customs, in addition, marriages began to be made between the Normans and the Irish elite. By the end of the fifteenth century, the Norman descendants were fully rooted in Ireland, they preferred to build their settlements around Dublin under the control of the English lords.

In the sixteenth century, the Tudors sought to establish English control over most of the island. Henry VIII's efforts to adapt the Catholic Church in Ireland marked the beginning of years of collaboration between Irish Catholics and Irish nationalists. His daughter, Elizabeth I, carried out the English conquest of the island.

In the early seventeenth century, the English government began to pursue a policy of colonization by importing English and Scottish immigrants, a policy that often entailed the forcible elimination of native Irish traditions. Today's nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland has its historical roots when new English Protestants and Scottish Presbyterians moved to Ulster.

The victory over the Stuarts at the end of the seventeenth century and by the period of Protestant activation, in which civil rights and human rights were proclaimed in the native Irish language, the vast majority of the population in Ireland were Catholics, so they were repressed. By the end of the eighteenth century, the cultural roots of the nation had become strong. But among other things, Ireland has absorbed some of the traditions of the Norwegians and the British. However, everything new that came to the country was inseparable from Catholicism.

Irish national unity

The long history of modern Irish revolutions began in 1798, when Catholic and Presbyterian leaders, influenced by the American and French revolutions, decided to establish national self-government in Ireland. They banded together to use force to try and sever the link between Ireland and England.

This led to subsequent uprisings in 1803, 1848 and 1867, but it was not possible to break the connection with England. Ireland joined the United Kingdom on the basis of the Union in 1801 and remained there until the end of the First World War (1914-1918), when the Irish War of Independence led to a compromise agreement between the Irish belligerents and the British government.

Protestants in Northern Ireland wanted Ulster to remain part of the United Kingdom. This compromise created the Irish Free State, which included twenty-six of the thirty-two districts in Ireland. The rest became Northern Ireland, but only part of Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, where the majority of the population was Protestant and unionized.

Cultural nationalism flourished when the Catholic liberation movement rose up for Irish independence in the early nineteenth century. The leaders of this movement sought to achieve a revitalization of the Irish language, sports, literature, drama and poetry in order to demonstrate the cultural and historical foundations of the Irish nation.

This resurgence of Gaelic culture stimulated a great deal of popular support for the creation of the idea of ​​an Irish nation. Also at this time there were groups that sought to express modern nationalism in various ways.

The intellectual life of Ireland began to have a great influence in the British Isles and beyond, and especially among the Irish diaspora, who were forced to flee disease, famine and death in the period 1846-1849, when there was a severe potato crop failure, on which the Irish were very dependent. peasantry. According to various estimates, during this period, the famine led to the death of approximately one million natives and two million emigrants.

By the end of the nineteenth century, many Irish residents came to a peace agreement with the inhabitants of Great Britain, but not all. Many others were committed to the violent severing of Irish and British ties. The Secret Societies were the forerunners of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), along with community groups such as trade union organizations, planning another uprising which took place on Easter Monday 24 April 1916.

It was distinguished by the ruthlessness with which the British government tried to suppress it. This rebellion led to widespread disappointment among the Irish people at the truce with England. The Irish War of Independence lasted from 1919-1921, and then the Irish Civil War (1921-1923) took place, which ended with the creation of an independent state.

ethnic relations

Many countries in the world have a significant number of Irish ethnic minorities, including, and. While many of these people emigrated from the mid to late nineteenth century, many others are descendants of later Irish emigrants, and still others were born in Ireland and left anyway for whatever reason.

These ethnic communities are identified to varying degrees with Irish culture, they are distinguished by religion, dance, music, clothing, food and secular and religious holidays (the most famous of which is St. Patrick's Day, which is celebrated in Irish communities around the world on March 17) .

While Irish immigrants often suffered from religious, ethnic and racial intolerance in the nineteenth century, their communities today are characterized by the persistence of their ethnic identity and the degree to which they have become entrenched and have come to accept echoes of other national cultures.

Ties with the homeland remain strong. Many people of Irish descent around the world are actively involved in finding a solution to the national conflict with Northern Ireland.

Inter-ethnic relations in the Republic of Ireland are relatively peaceful, given the homogeneity of the national culture, but Irish travelers are often victims of prejudice.

In Northern Ireland, the level of ethnic conflict, which is inextricably linked to religion, nationalism and ethnic unity, is high, it was the cause of the political violence in 1969. Since 1994, the world has been shaky and intermittent. Good Friday, on which the 1998 agreement was concluded, is the latest accord in this political situation.

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Where did Ireland start?

The first colony on the Emerald Isle was in the 12th century the town of Peil, founded by the Normans who arrived here. From the end of the 16th century Norman rule was established over Irish territory, and the local population was deprived of almost all rights. In 1366, With the adoption of the "Killkenny Statutes", the situation of the Irish worsened significantly. According to the laws, everyone was required to speak only English and wear clothes in the British manner. It was forbidden to sell weapons and horses to the Irish, and during the hostilities, even food. In the English territories, the Irish were not allowed to hold church offices, nor could they be provided with premises for religious purposes. An Englishman could kill an Irishman with impunity, for such a crime the killer was not even threatened with a fine.
Since the end of the 16th century, the ecclesiastical, monastic and private lands of the Irish were confiscated in favor of the English colonists. The ban on free religion led to a wave of uprisings throughout the country. During the famous English bourgeois revolution, Irish rebellions and unrest did not subside for about 10 years. until the ambitious and cruel Oliver Cromwell. He staged a real terror against the Catholics, who were mercilessly robbed and killed. The Legislative Act "On the Settlement", 1653, deprived all the Irish who participated in the uprising of the lands, they were submitted to the Parliament and distributed among its members. Catholic priests were expelled from Ireland, and Protestantism was proclaimed the state religion. Such a decision was sanctioned after the Jacobite wars by William of Orange, with his filing, Catholics no longer had the right to rent or acquire land, to educate their children, and taxes on the maintenance of the Anglican Church were simply ruinous. Wilhelm's reign led to a deterioration in the economic situation, the industry fell into decline, and the industries that competed with the English ceased to exist. But it was this period that was characterized by the development of Irish national identity.

Fight for independence

Since the end of the 17th century, various societies have appeared on the territory of Ireland, opposing the unfair treatment of the British towards the Irish. Discontent grew in society and Parliament, and the opposition gained momentum, promoting programs that give Ireland freedom and political autonomy. The next step was a boycott of British goods, which forced the British government to lift restrictions on trade. The first victory was the achievement of legislative independence by the Irish Parliament in 1782. The first laws were the return of voting rights to Catholics, then an agreement was signed unifying the relationship between the Irish and English parliaments. Since then, members of the Irish Parliament have been delegated to the House of Commons. However, it was not possible to achieve complete freedom until 1829, when Catholics were allowed to hold public office. The Irish tried with all their might to achieve self-government and strove for complete independence, but in the 19th century they failed to do this. Programs were repeatedly proposed to create their own executive bodies, but all proposals were rejected. In 1912, one of the initiatives being promoted was made law by the House of Lords.
The situation in the country continued to heat up, but preparations for Protestant-Catholic demonstrations were interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War. The Easter Rising took place in 1916. during which government buildings were taken under control. The rebellion was brutally suppressed by British naval artillery, but popular unrest became the impetus for further full-scale protests against the English conquerors. In 1918, the Irish Republicans won the majority of seats in Parliament, declaring the independence of Ireland while forming their own parliament. This decision gave rise to the three-year Anglo-Irish War from 1919 to 1921. After the end of the conflict, Britain gave independence to 26 Irish counties, and 6 counties were given the right to self-determination and the opportunity to secede from Great Britain. Northern Ireland advocated an alliance with the United Kingdom, which was the beginning of the Ulster standoff.

Northern Ireland in the 20th century

After the separation of the two Irelands, the territory of the "Emerald Isle" was swept by a wave of terrorist attacks. for which the Irish Republican Army claimed responsibility. The purpose of the IRA was to destabilize the situation in Northern Ireland in order to stop the attempts of the Northern Irish government to keep the situation in the country under control. Massive IRA attacks on Northern Ireland were from 1930 to 1945, in the early 1950s, and from 1956 to 1961.
The parliamentary predominance of Protestants over Catholics caused discontent among the latter. Adherents of the Catholic faith in 1967 created an association whose demand was civil equality for both religious groups. Rallies of community members led to an aggravation of relations between confessions, the result of unrest was a protracted conflict in Northern Ireland.
The apogee of the collisions came in 1969 when a wave of unrest swept across the country - from Londonderry to Belfast. To avoid a repeat of the turmoil, regular troops were introduced into the country, but the situation continued to deteriorate until direct rule was introduced in Northern Ireland, which caused resistance from the population. At the end of January 1972, the protests turned into "Bloody Sunday" when the military killed 13 Catholics who went to the rally. Protesters broke into the British Embassy building and burned it down. About 500 Northern Irish died between 1972 and 1975, after which the British government decided to hold a referendum, but the Catholics boycotted it. Another attempt to stabilize the situation was signing in 1973 of the Sunnigdelian Agreement between British and Irish leaders but real the 1985 treaty brought results. The document stated that Northern Ireland is a British administrative part as long as the inhabitants of the country agree with this.
In 1993 a declaration was made in Downing Street which reflected the desire of both parties to reach a political consensus, while stipulating the absence of violence in resolving any issues. The result was a ceasefire by the IRA and later by armed Protestants. New round of terrorist attacks carried out by the IRA in 1996, put an end to the truce.
Labor Party won the 1997 election, in whose election campaign it was planned to recognize all agreements between Britain and Northern Ireland. The result was conclusion of the Belfast peace agreement in 1997 between all Northern Irish and British political forces.

Unusual, like the country itself. We are not going to retell the entire chronology of the formation of Ireland, but it is necessary to note the milestones that greatly influenced the country. Indeed, in the historical "today" of any country, its relationship with the past is necessarily traced.

In Ireland, its historical face appeared already several thousand years before the birth of Christ, which was represented by stone structures (megaliths or dolmens) of the Neolithic era.

A feature of this period is an unusually large number of such structures in Ireland. In total, over 1,000 megalithic structures have been discovered here. The best known of these are Poulnabrone dolmen in Buren National Park, Glantane East in County Cork, and Knot in County Meath. By the way, in the building, one of the oldest maps of the moon, made on stone, was found.

The first weighty description of Ireland was given already in the 2nd century AD in the writings of the historians of Rome (Tacitus) and Ancient Greece (Ptolemy), where they mention several tribes of Celts who appeared here in the 1st millennium BC.

From the 5th century, it begins to convert to Christianity. And this is not only the merit of St. Patrick, who is considered the baptist of Ireland, but also other, no less famous Saints, such as St. Columba, and others.

Ireland by this time was divided into numerous petty kingdoms. But, surprisingly, in 697, in the town of Birr, County Ofali (Co.Offaly), an agreement was adopted between these rulers “On the innocent” (Low of the innocents). This treaty indicated the prohibition of violence against the civilian population during internecine wars. Considering the year in which this treaty was made, its intentions properly characterize the Irish.

Ireland during this period becomes a very important center of monastic life and learning throughout Europe, with the main monastery on the island of Iona. Now this island belongs to Scotland, and the time we are describing is considered the "Golden Age" of Ireland and is characterized by an unprecedented flowering of the culture of early Christianity, including metalwork, stonework and writing manuscripts.

The most famous and well-preserved such book is considered to be the Book of Kells or the Book of Columbus, which was written in the Kells Monastery, County Meath, founded by St. Columba of Iona himself.

Most likely, this book was started in the monastery of the island of Ionne, but due to the Viking raids, the monks, led by St. Columbus, moved to Kells Abbey (Kells Abbey), where the book was finished (800 AD). This is one of five versions of the location of the book.

Now, this amazing manuscript is kept in the Library and can be viewed at a special exhibition.

Approximately, mass Viking raids date back to this time, as a result of which many monastic settlements were plundered, such as, for example. To expand their conquests, the Vikings found their settlements - cities. So, for example, the city was founded, approximately in 988. And only in 1014, the combined forces of the Irish, led by King Brian Boru, defeated the Vikings near Clontarf.

A little later, Clontarf Castle was built in this area, which is now located within the city and turned into a 4-star hotel.

Due to the death of King Brian himself during the battle, the Irish could not resolve the issue of uniting the country after the victory. Moreover, one of the petty kings, asked for help from the Anglo - Normans, who "helped" establish their own dominance. As a stronghold of their power, the Anglo-Normans built castles on the occupied territory, some of which, such as King John's Castle in Limerick, have survived to this day.

By the 16th century, the Anglo-Normans had, in fact, already dissolved into the Celtic culture. But a new trouble came to Ireland in the person of the British, who, having strengthened power in England, were able to establish dominance over the island of Ireland. This was done by the English King Henry VIII (King Henry VIII).

In the next post

Emerald Ireland, filled with myths about leprechauns and elves, has always aroused the interest of scientists and archaeologists. After all, the island is considered one of those places where people settled a very long time ago - eight thousand years before our era. And the area of ​​the island of Ireland is 84 thousand square meters. km, which allows him to take the third line in the list. In addition, until now, archaeologists have not been able to reveal the purpose of megalithic structures and dolmens, which are found in large numbers on the territory of the country. Incredibly, so far the area of ​​Ireland has not yet been fully explored, which means that the history of these amazing lands can be replenished with interesting facts.

The first inhabitants of Ireland

Scientists believe that the first came here immediately after the end of the Ice Age, when the climate made it possible to feel comfortable on these lands. The entire area of ​​Ireland was quickly settled, and the locals allegedly began to build various buildings. It is still unknown why the ancient Irish erected these strange buildings. But, for example, dolmens are considered funerary monuments. Although some scientists claim that they have a sacred meaning, and with their help the island population contacted the spirits. By the way, in one of the megalithic buildings, archaeologists found the oldest stone map of the starry sky, which depicted the Moon and its relief in great detail.

Ireland in the pre-Christian era

Around the second millennium BC, Celtic tribes landed on the island. They began to migrate from Eastern Europe and gradually settled not only on the mainland, but also on the nearby islands. The entire area of ​​Ireland was mastered by the Celts very quickly, they used iron weapons, were distinguished by their militancy and passion for military campaigns. They destroyed part of the local population, and the rest of the islanders gradually merged with the Celts into one nation. It is worth noting that the conquest of the island had a very good effect on its culture and development. The Celts brought with them new technologies, language, writing and religion. Almost all Irish myths are some interpretation of Celtic history and beliefs.

It is with the Celts that the Druid tribes are associated, which left a deep mark on the culture of many European peoples. Some historians argue that it was the Druids who brought their vast knowledge to Ireland and taught the children of the locals about their culture and religion. Until now, most of the legends tell about the wise and fair wizards who helped the Irish develop agriculture and generously shared their deep knowledge in cosmology, agriculture and healing.

Christianization of Ireland

Around the beginning of the fifth century, the first missionaries began to enter Ireland, trying to convert the local population to Christianity. It is worth noting that in addition to St. Patrick, who is considered the most important Irish saint, other ministers of the church also contributed to the Christianization of the island - St. Columbus, for example, or St. Kevin. But Saint Patrick, who was born in Britain and spent more than five years in Irish slavery, is still recognized as the official baptist of Ireland.

Since the area of ​​Ireland is quite large, and the population is numerous, Christianization took place in several stages over several centuries, acquiring its characteristic features in the process. Ireland was not characterized by the destruction of the pagans and the planting of a new faith. The missionaries gradually convinced the local population, built monasteries and actively educated the Irish. This led to the fact that during the period of the cultural decline of Europe, Ireland became a prosperous country where Christianity did not limit the population, but, on the contrary, supported it. The monks contributed to the development of writing, created unique illustrations for church subjects and stunning sculptures. Many archaeologists and historians call the 5th-6th century Ireland's "Golden Age".

Viking raids

Ireland (the area, territory and favorable climate contributed to this) constantly attracted the attention of its neighbors. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Irish began to be subjected to constant Viking raids.

They ravaged settlements and monasteries, many of which were destroyed to the ground. To increase their influence, the Vikings began to establish their own cities and gradually assimilated among the indigenous inhabitants of the island. Around 988, the city of Dublin was founded, which began to play a very important role in the development of the island. In parallel, the Vikings founded port cities, which were of great importance for their way of life. Gradually, monasteries began to be restored on the island, and the conquerors ceased to treat the monks with distrust. They have learned to coexist peacefully.

The Irish tried more than once to stop the Viking invasion, but only at the beginning of the 11th century, Brian Boru (high king) managed to defeat the conquering army.

Establishment of British power

The vast area of ​​Ireland (in sq. km - 84 thousand) could not fail to attract the attention of the British sooner or later. From the 11th century they began to approach the major Irish cities, gradually conquering them. From the beginning of the 12th century, King Henry II declared himself Lord of Ireland and established his authority over some part of the island. The Anglo-Norman lords also did not fail to receive a large piece of Irish land and began to collect it under their rule.

By the beginning of the 17th century, the British had already firmly established themselves on the island and confidently established their own rules. Traditions and customs were gradually supplanted. But in this period of time, this trend has not yet become widespread, so the Irish patiently demolished the orders of the new government.

Surprisingly, the division of the population into old and new became very clear in the 17th century. Native Irish and early English Catholics formed the basis of this society, but it was they who became outcasts. The English settlers, identifying themselves with the new government, shunned the local population, which became poorer every year.

Oppression of the Irish: the development of the country under the leadership of the British

The British, who are mostly Protestants, actively oppressed the Catholics, who were almost all Irish. By the 17th century, this had taken on truly monstrous forms. Catholics were forbidden to buy land, have their own churches, receive higher education and speak their own language. The uprisings began in the country, which resulted in a long inter-religious conflict, which led to the division of the country.

By the end of the 18th century, the Catholics had no more than five percent of the land left, and the culture was preserved only thanks to the efforts of underground societies that met on weekends and held educational lessons for the younger generation.

In the first quarter of the 19th century, there was a thaw in relations between Ireland and Great Britain. It became possible thanks to the activities of Daniel O "Connell, who convinced the English Parliament to pass several laws that make life easier for Irish Catholics. This patriot defended the rights of his fellow citizens with great enthusiasm and sought to recreate an Irish parliament that would allow the inhabitants of the island to influence the country's politics themselves.

Background of the War of Independence

Perhaps the history of Ireland would have taken a different path, but in the middle of the 19th century, the country had three consecutive years of potato crop failure, which was the main source of food for the Irish. The population began to starve, but according to the laws established by the British, they had to export grain to other countries. Every year the population of Ireland decreased, in the hope of a better life, the islanders began to emigrate from the country. Most of them settled in the USA, some tried their luck in England. In a short period of time, about two million families left Ireland.

At the end of the 19th century, the Irish became increasingly persistent in seeking self-government. But it was then that the religious differences between the population of the country were clearly manifested - the northern part of Ireland was represented by Protestants, while the main population remained Catholics. Protestants opposed self-government, which caused tension in the country to grow.

Despite the fact that the British agreed to some concessions for the Irish and signed a document on self-government, Ireland remained under the total control of Britain. This greatly worried the supporters of secession from the crown, and on April 24, 1916, an uprising was raised in Dublin, which lasted six days. At the end of it, almost all the leaders of the movement were executed, which caused the rise of the revolutionary movement in Ireland. In 1919, the creation of an Irish parliament and an independent republic was announced.

Island of Ireland: area, territories today

The desire of the Irish for independence led to hostilities with the British, which lasted from 1919 to 1921. As a result, the rebels achieved what they wanted and became completely independent from Britain, but the price of freedom was the split of the country and society.

As a result, two states were formed on the map - the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. Moreover, most of the island belongs to the Irish Free State, the northerners occupy only one-sixth of the island.

What is the area of ​​Ireland (republic): a brief description

Since the declaration of independence, it has accepted 26 counties into its structure, and the country's area is 70 thousand square meters. km. This is the largest state on the island.

Until the 1980s, the country experienced serious economic difficulties, the population continued to leave the republic, and it was extremely difficult to find work in Ireland. But for more than 20 years, the situation has stabilized. The economy is experiencing stable growth, and the young people who once left have again reached out to their homeland. According to the latest data, more than 50 percent of immigrants have already returned to Ireland. And this indicates that only positive changes await the country ahead.

Northern Ireland: description and features

If we consider general Ireland, a not so important place is allocated there (240.5 thousand sq. Km and 84 thousand sq. Km, respectively). But the inhabitants of the northern part of the island were extremely pleased with the status quo in 1920.

The area of ​​Northern Ireland is just over 14 square kilometers. km, the country included only 6 counties. It is worth noting that until 1998 conflicts between Catholics and Protestants continued in Northern Ireland. Quite often they were accompanied by armed clashes, and Great Britain more than once brought its troops into the country in order to resolve conflicts.

Over 3,000 people have died on religious grounds in almost 30 years. Only at the beginning of the 21st century did peacetime begin in the country, the warring parties reconciled and managed to agree on cooperation. In recent years, some have been in favor of reunification with the republic and a return to a single state on the territory of the island. But this proposal is not supported by everyone in the country's parliament, which may serve as a pretext for another protracted conflict in the future.

Conclusion

Throughout its history, Ireland has experienced many difficult moments and bloody armed conflicts, nevertheless, the spirit of the people remained unconquered by any of the conquerors. Indeed, in every Irishman the blood of Celtic warriors who knew how to defend their freedom and traditions flows.

The island position and proximity to Britain largely determined the history of Ireland. The island has been inhabited for approximately 7 thousand years.

The Mesolithic culture was brought with them by hunters from Britain, who were the first settlers on the island. Behind them, in the 3rd millennium BC, came the farmers and pastoralists of the Neolithic era. A wave of Celtic invasions swept the island in the 6th century. BC. The country was fragmented into more than 150 kingdoms, and although the Celts failed to unite Ireland politically, they laid the foundations of linguistic and cultural unity.

The introduction of Christianity in the 5th c. associated with the name of St. Patrick. Ireland did not know the barbarian invasions of the early Middle Ages, and this is partly why the 6th and 7th centuries. were marked by the flourishing of learning, art and culture, the centers of which were concentrated in monasteries.

In the 9th-10th centuries. the country was subjected to regular Viking raids, which, due to its fragmentation, could not resist. The Vikings imposed tribute throughout Ireland, but at the same time, being engaged in trade, they contributed to the development of urban life in Dublin, Cork and Waterford. The end of the domination of the Vikings was put by the victory of the High King ("Ardriage") Brian Boru at Clontarf in 1014, however, the emerging trend towards the creation of a single state was stopped in 1168 by the invasion of the "Normans" - English barons, descendants of the North French knights. It was they who placed almost 3/4 of Ireland under the political control of the English crown and for 400 years planted their own culture, introducing their own laws and institutions of power (including parliament). 1297 was marked by the opening of the session of the first Irish Parliament in Dublin. In 1315, Ireland was occupied by the Scots and Edward the Bruce proclaimed himself king, but soon died. In 1348, about 1/3 of the island's population died from the plague. In 1541, Henry VIII of England proclaimed himself King of Ireland. Since that time, the erosion of the Irish clan system has accelerated sharply. The religious changes that took place in England were reflected in Ireland, and although the descendants of the Normans, called the "old Englishmen", did not accept the Protestant Reformation, the Irish Anglican Church was formed in the country.

Revolts broke out in the country more than once, which had a national and religious background, but they all ended in defeat, and in 1603 the Gaelic resistance was finally broken, and the English crown for the first time managed to politically unite all of Ireland.

Another uprising in 1649 ended with the complete defeat of the Irish by the troops of Oliver Cromwell and massive land confiscations. In 1688, most Irish Catholics came out in support of the deposed English Catholic King James II, but they were defeated at the Battle of the Boyne (1690). Protestants belonging to the Anglican Church monopolized power and land ownership in the country.

In 1798, under the influence of the French Revolution, a new uprising broke out in Ireland, led by Wolf Tone, aimed at creating an independent republic. It was suppressed and Ireland lost the remnants of political autonomy.

In con. 1840s As a result of a poor potato harvest, famine struck Ireland: in 1846-56, the country's population decreased from 8 to 6 million people. (1 million people died and 1 million people emigrated). The Great Famine had significant political implications.

In 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed, according to which 6 counties of northeastern Ulster were constructed as Northern Ireland, and the remaining 26 counties formed the Irish Free State with its capital in Dublin, which was part of the British Empire as a dominion. The first government of the new state was headed by William Cosgrave. In 1937 a new constitution was adopted.

Ireland remained neutral during World War II.

In 1948, the fully independent Republic of Ireland was proclaimed.

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Plan
Introduction
1 Struggle for autonomy
2 Anglo-Irish War
3 Northern Ireland
4 Labour's devolution program
Bibliography

Introduction

Ireland in the 17th century

In the XII century. The Normans first appeared in Ireland and subsequently founded the colony of Pale.

Gradually, towards the end of the 16th century, English rule was established throughout Ireland. Since that time, the oppression and infringement of the rights of the indigenous Irish population began.

In particular, in 1366, the so-called Killkennian Statutes were adopted, according to which all the British, under the threat of confiscation of land and imprisonment, were ordered to speak only English, dress only in English clothes, it was forbidden to sell horses and weapons to the Irish, and in wartime and products nutrition.

It was also forbidden in the English territories to admit the Irish to church posts and to provide them with premises for religious purposes. The infringement of the Irish reached the point that for the murder of an Irishman, an Englishman was not only not punished corporally, but was not even fined.

The Reformation and the confiscation of monastic lands in the late 30s of the 16th century were also accompanied by the confiscation of Irish lands and their transfer to English colonists.

While religious persecution caused new and new uprisings throughout Ireland. During the English bourgeois revolution, an uprising broke out in Ireland, which lasted about 10 years. In 1649, Oliver Cromwell arrived there to suppress the uprising. The fight against the rebels was accompanied by cruel terror against Catholics, mass looting and extermination of the population. In 1652 and in 1653, by the act of "eliminating Ireland" and the act of "settlement", O. Cromwell authorized the confiscation of land from everyone who was related to the uprising, all lands taken from the Catholics were divided among members of parliament, entrepreneurs and soldiers Cromwell.

Catholic clergy were forbidden to stay in Ireland, and the Irish Parliament was included in the English. All these harsh measures strengthened the shaken position of England in Ireland. Religious dominance was formalized by the declaration of Protestantism as the state religion by William of Orange after the victory in the "Jacobite Wars" of 1689-1691.

He also deprived Catholics of the right to purchase and rent land, the right to education for Catholic children, and imposed huge taxes on the entire population for the maintenance of the Anglican Church. During his reign, the economic situation throughout the country deteriorated significantly, as the most significant industries that could compete with England were deliberately put into decline.

From about the same time, the formation and development of national identity began.

The struggle for autonomy

In 1684, the "Philosophical Society" was founded, which was the first to oppose the injustice of the British towards the Irish population.

For the same purpose, the "Catholic League" was founded in 1775 to defend the rights of Catholics. Since that time, the opposition in Parliament began to grow, programs began to be developed to provide Ireland with economic freedom and political autonomy. The first author of this kind of program was Henry Grattan, who became the head of the movement for the autonomy and independence of the Irish Parliament.

These sentiments, as well as the announcement of a boycott of English goods in order to force the British government to lift trade restrictions, led to the fact that in 1782 the Irish Parliament received full legislative independence.

Acts were adopted that improved the position of Catholics, in particular, they were provided with the right to vote. The next step was the signing of a bill of union between the parliaments of Ireland and Great Britain. The Irish were now to send their members of the House of Commons to the English Parliament. But even these measures did not provide complete political freedom in Ireland, so in 1823 a "Catholic Association" was created, the purpose of which was the emancipation of Catholics. The Catholic Emancipation Act, which allowed Catholics to hold public office, was signed in 1829.

After that, the main goal of the Irish was to achieve self-government, and then independence. In 1870, the Association for Local Government was formed, the purpose of which was to promote the self-government of Ireland, for which it actively put forward its candidates to Parliament. In 1837, this organization was transformed into the Home Rule League. In 1886 and in 1893, one of its members, Gladstone, twice proposed a program for a bill to give Ireland its own parliament and executive authorities to solve the problems of the province.

Under his program, the United Kingdom continued to carry out legislative activities on a number of issues, such as defence, foreign policy and colonial administration and control of finances.

But both of these bills were not passed. In 1912, a third Home Rule Bill was proposed, which, after being rejected three times by the House of Lords, was to be considered law. For several years, the military organizations of Protestants and Catholics were preparing for performances, but their preparation was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War, as a result of which it was decided to postpone the introduction of the gormul until the end of the war. In 1916, a group called the Irish Republican Brotherhood, with the support of the Irish Citizen Army and members of the union militia, organized the so-called Easter Rising in Dublin.

During the mutiny, several buildings in the city center were captured and the "Proclamation establishing the Republic of Ireland" was issued, but the mutiny was put down by British naval artillery. This rebellion gave impetus to a further and larger struggle for Irish independence. In the 1918 general election, the Irish Republicans won the majority of seats in Parliament. They proclaimed Ireland an independent country and formed the first Dale, that is, their own parliament, under the leadership of Eamon De Valer.

These events sparked the Anglo-Irish War, which lasted from 1919 to 1921.

Anglo-Irish War

The war ended with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Agreement in 1921, under which 26 Irish counties were granted independence, and 6 counties were granted the right to independently secede from Great Britain, Northern Ireland voted to remain part of the United Kingdom with its own parliament and government, which formed basis of the Ulster conflict.

In the rest of the island, the creation of the Irish Free State, the predecessor of the modern Republic of Ireland, was proclaimed. In 1937, a new constitution was adopted there, according to which the former dominion became the sovereign state of Eire. And in relations with Northern Ireland, the most important clause of the constitution was the article on the need to reunite a single Irish state.

In 1949, Ireland declared itself an independent republic and withdrew from the Commonwealth.

Northern Ireland

After the secession of the Republic of Ireland and throughout the century, there were numerous terrorist attacks carried out by the Irish Republican Army in order to prevent the Northern Irish government from exercising its authority in this territory. From time to time the IRA carried out attacks on Northern Ireland, such as in the 1930s, during World War II and in the early 1950s.

The most significant campaign against the northern counties was launched between 1956 and 1961.

The traditional predominance of Protestant forces in the parliament led to a gradual increase in discontent on the part of the Catholics.

In 1967, activists in the Catholic movement created the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association, which demanded civil equality for Catholics and Protestants. Their rallies under the slogans of protecting the rights of the Catholic population led to the intensification of the activities of radical religious and political groups and to a new aggravation in interfaith relations. The apogee of this kind of clashes was the events in Londonderry, where the police dispersed a peaceful demonstration of Protestants, in response to this, protestant extremists provoked armed riots in Belfast the following year.

In order to avoid the recurrence of such cases in 1969, regular army units were introduced into the territory of Northern Ireland. But these measures did not help improve the situation in this part of the country, and in 1972 a regime of direct rule was introduced in Northern Ireland. This led to the most severe riots and uprisings. The apogee can be considered the events of "Bloody Sunday" on December 30, 1972, when British troops opened fire on the rebellious Catholics and killed 13 people. In response, the rebels broke into the British embassy in Dublin and burned it to the ground.

A total of 475 people died in Northern Ireland between 1972 and 1975. To relieve tension in the country, the British government decided to hold a referendum. The referendum was boycotted by the Catholic minority, and the government decided to act bypassing the opinion of the population, and in 1973 the leaders of Great Britain and Ireland signed the Sunningdale Agreement creating the Council of Ireland, an interstate consultative body of ministers and members of parliament of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, but the ratification of this agreement was thwarted by protestant extremists.

The attempt to recreate the assembly in 1974 and the elections to the convention in 1976 ended similarly. The first successful attempt of cooperation between Great Britain and Ireland in the field of resolving the conflict in Northern Ireland was the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985, which confirmed that the territory of Northern Ireland belonged to Great Britain, as long as the majority of its inhabitants supported it.

The agreement also provided for regular conferences at the level of members of the governments of the two countries. The first positive consequence of this agreement was the adoption in 1993 of the Downing Street Declaration, which declared the principle of inviting all interested parties to the negotiating table, provided they renounce violence. As a result of these agreements, the Irish Republican Army first declared a ceasefire, and soon Protestant military organizations followed suit.

In the same year, an international commission was created to manage the disarmament process. However, the organization refused it, which greatly complicated the negotiation process. A new terrorist attack, organized by members of the Irish Republican Army in London on February 9, 1996, interrupted the truce.

Irish.

Each nation is unique in its own way. However, some of them are surrounded by numerous myths. The classic example is the Irish. It is difficult to characterize them with some stereotypes. There is even a legendary expression attributed to Sigmund Freud: "This is a race of people in relation to whom psychoanalysis does not make sense."

The image of the Irish is surrounded by myths, they should be debunked. This nationality is very interesting, but by no means as bright as is commonly believed.

The Irish are friendly people. It is believed that the Irish will gladly give you the last shirt. But often they will prefer not to share it, but to sue because of it. Especially often lawsuits happen in families because of inheritance.

In general, the Irish are friendly, but a lot depends on who you are, where you are and what you do. Ireland is called the "land of a thousand greetings", but one has only to earn a bad reputation and the picture will change radically.

All Irish people are religious.

When a time of crisis comes, or danger threatens, any Irishman, even an atheist, will call on all the saints for help. But this does not mean deep religiosity; rather, it is a reflex laid down from birth. It is believed that 90% of Irish citizens are Catholics. In fact, only 30% of them have ever been to church at all.

They mention the name of the Lord when they fall or become dislocated, as do many of us.

The Irish can't sing. Ireland can be proud of its singers.

Suffice it to recall the names of Ronan Keating, Chris de Burgh and Daniel O'Donnell. And the main musical export product is the group U2. However, one should not assume that any Irishman will be able to sing a rebellious national song at any time. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that local ballads can brighten up evenings perfectly.

The Irish sing about love, about snowfall and gentle light, making listeners cry. This love of music is part of the national spirit.

The Irish are irreconcilable. In 1981, Bobby Sands, leader of the IRA, died as a result of a hunger strike. This attracted the attention of the entire world community to the problem of relations between England and Northern Ireland. To annoy London, the Irish government even decided to change the name of the street where the British embassy was located.

It was decided to rename Churchill Boulevard as Bobby Sands Street.

History of Ireland

Then the British embassy was forced to change its address. Now all printed materials were sent to the side street and house. So the embassy was able to refuse to use the rebel's name. Yes, and the term "boycott" is of Irish origin, coming from the name of Captain James Boycott. The inhabitants of this country really have integrity and the spirit of the struggle for justice.

All Irish people are redheads with freckles.

This is a common stereotype that all people of this nationality have red hair. But there are many natural blondes here, as well as black-haired men. Irish people often have brown or blue eyes. In our time, the country has become multicultural, only 9% of redheads by nature remain here.

All Irish people are pugnacious. It is believed that the Irish are so passionate that they are looking for a reason to fight.

That's just those who run amok in public places are not approved, but simply considered a fool. And having received such recognition, there is a risk of maintaining the “stigma” for life.

All Irish people are drunkards.

The catchphrase reads: "God invented whiskey to protect the whole world from the power of the Irish." According to statistics, no more alcohol is drunk here than in any other European country. The myth appeared due to the fact that the Irish do not hide the pleasure they get from drinking. Dublin has one pub for every 100 inhabitants. And appearing drunk in public here is even considered a crime. Locals do not have to get drunk to be cheerful.

The company may make more noise because of communication, and not because of alcohol.

The Irish are great storytellers and storytellers. There are those who will delight listeners with interesting stories, while others are not given it.

Interestingly, Amanda McKittrick (1869-1939) was born in Ireland. She was called the worst writer in history by English literary experts. She published her own series of novels, winning the attention of many fans. The woman believed in her talent, despite the attacks of critics. She called them donkey-headed ticks and corrupt crabs, people with the talents of a janitor.

And today we remember her, not her critics.

All Irish people are stupid. The English have been teasing their island neighbors for centuries, thinking they are stupid.

Edmund Spenser was especially famous, who devoted a lot of space to attacks on the Irish in his poems. He argued that the neighbors are far from much more educated Englishmen. Do not forget that it was Ireland that gave the world James Joyce (he is considered the true heir of Shakespeare), as well as other prominent poets and writers.

The Irish are vindictive.

Locals can easily flare up, but they just as quickly retreat. If the Irish remember your past mistakes, then as a joke. Here it is customary to treat life with humor and make fun of yourself, so you should not be offended. There is even a comic term "Irish Alzheimer".

It refers to the fact that the Irish sometimes "forget" about the birthdays of their relatives, not wanting to congratulate them. But this is just a joke.

All Irish people love green. Following this statement, we can say that the Spaniards are fans of red, and the Dutch love orange.

If the Irish wear all green on their main holiday, this does not mean a general obsession with color at other times. There are traditions according to which people choose green scarves and hats for public events.

This is where the love for the “national” color ends. And with those on whom there is nothing green, they will still communicate.

The Irish speak Irish. The national language is indeed Irish, but it is only spoken in a few secluded places in the west of the island.

Most Irish people speak English.

The Irish live in Ireland. About 4 million people of this nationality live in Ireland itself. But people with Irish roots are scattered all over the world. It is believed that most of them in the United States - up to 36 million. They are found in Canada, Australia, Argentina and Mexico. And all these people have fun celebrating their national holiday - St. Patrick's Day.

And the reason for the great migration was the "Great Famine", when people on the island died en masse due to a poor potato harvest. Then many poor people decided to emigrate to the United States. There are currently about 80 million Irish people in the world.

Count Dracula is of Irish descent. Surprisingly, it is. The writer Bram Stoker, who created the cult book, has never been to Eastern Europe at all.

He was born in Dublin and raised in Ireland. It was here that he heard enough of local legends about mysterious creatures who drank human blood. And there is a very specific story about the leader Abhartach, who, according to historians, was the very king of vampires.

Popular myths.

Popular facts.

Page 1 of 8

Yu. M. Saprykin "History of Ireland", Chapter 1.

On the territory of Ireland, several monuments of the Stone and Bronze Ages have been discovered. The earliest of them arose in the sixth millennium BC. Although the transition to the Neolithic did not appear until the third millennium, the Bronze Age began very early. For a millennium to a year and a half. e. Bronze and gold items from Ireland were exported to the mainland.

In VI.

BC. There are Celtic tribes, or, as the Romans called them, Scott. At that time, their migration from the region of Central Europe, Gaul, the United Kingdom, northern Italy and the Iberian Peninsula was. In Ireland, they probably moved in two streams - from northern Galicia and northern Britain. The first conquerors of Ireland are the Celtic tribes, and then Belgium, the British, the Picts and others. The newcomers oppose the use of a locksmith's tool used by the locals using iron-derived tools.

At the beginning.e. they apparently took over the whole island. From the chronologies it is known that this is about 10 I of the first century. AD in Ireland was the resurrection of people of plebeian origin who succeeded in destroying all nobility. “This shows the dominance of the Scottish liberators over the elderly,” notes Engels.

But from the V side on. The AD Celts (Scots), mixed with the local population, were Goidelic as a special dialect of the Celtic languages, and the people began to call themselves goidelami (anglicised as Gaels).

Irish material culture

Cattle has been one of the important occupations of the Irish since ancient times.

They raised cattle, horses, pigs and sheep. It is clear from the Bregon Act, the barbarous Law of Ancient Ireland contained in the collections of legal debates The Great Book Antiquity, that disputes over the ownership of livestock are very common among the Irish, and the amount of fines imposed on various offenses expressed in a given number of cattle.

Cattle were primarily a medium of exchange. The theft of cattle is spoken of in the sagas, ancient tales of heroes. Animal husbandry significantly influenced the idea of ​​the ancient Irish about the calendar, their customs and rituals.

At the same time, the inhabitants of many parts of Ireland, in particular the central plains and the south-western island, have long been engaged in agriculture, including livestock.

In the laws of race, among the natural sacrifices, the leaders mentioned barley, oatmeal, wheat, malt; as the typical food of a poor man, called a jug and a piece of cake.

Oats were the main cereals. The favorite dish of the Irish was oatmeal; Wheat bread is used primarily for familiarization and then for its treatment.

On August 1, a harvest festival took place. In the annals - sagas - the years were noted, in particular, as the years of people's well-being.

In agriculture, a constant system of soil formation was carried out with periodic replacement of arable land. Since ancient times, the Irish have protected the plug. The fork brought Kelte with her. Often cultivated land was under forest. The grains have been crushed by stone seedlings since the 5th century BC. AD were watermills. The inhabitants of the coast practiced fishing as a supporting profession.

The boat was not separated from agriculture, they themselves were engaged in farmers; they cut linen and wool, weaved, made leather, hung clothes and shoes, made ceramics; blacksmith crafts and jewelry were considered privileged professions; The products of blacksmiths and jewelers were intended mainly for leaders and nobles.

The Irish settled in convenient and safe places in the river valleys and hills.

The main building material was wood.

history of ireland

the simple Irish Corps is usually a round cage of bushes and reeds and muddy clay, with a window opening, with a thatch roof supported in a middle column; smoke from the fireplace passed through a hole in the roof. The floors were clay. On the walls stood a chamber (“boxes”) on which they burned.

The ancient fortress - fortifications on hills with fortified ditches and palisades - is Croachan in Connaught, Tara in Meath, Emen Mah Ailich in Ulster.

On the site of modern Dublin, Eblan was.

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