Takeoff and landing tractors. Course and glide path systems Glide path inclination

The modern language is full of words and expressions, the meaning of which, at times, is not entirely clear and requires explanation. Usually these are professional words that have entered our everyday speech from specialists of a particular profession.

Since for many people air travel has become a familiar way of transportation, in our speech we increasingly use aviation terms that were previously used and understood only by professionals. So, let's answer the question - what is a glide path?

What is a glide path, the meaning of the word

Let's define the concept of the word glide path. It comes from French glissade – slide, slip.

In aviation, this is the trajectory during the landing approach, along which the aircraft or any other aircraft descends. Movement along it brings the aircraft to the landing zone. For most airfields, the approach to the glide path starts at a distance of 15-20 km from the runway (RWY). From the controller, the board receives permission to land only when it is on this trajectory. Then the plane releases the landing gear.

One of the important characteristics of the runway is glide slope angle(UNK) - the angle between the planes of the glide path and the horizon. Depending on how accurately this angle is maintained, the further actions of the pilot will depend - approach to the second circle or soft landing. On the recommendation of the International Organization civil aviation UNK is equal to 3º. In the USSR, the value 2º40′ was adopted. Modern civil aviation airfields - angle value ranging from 2º to 4º.

When flying along the glide path with the wing mechanization released stall margin determine airworthiness standards (NLG). To provide the necessary margin, not exceeding the allowable one, the speed of an aircraft moving along the glide path must exceed the stall speed by at least a third. For different aircraft this is about 60±10 km/h.

In this mode, even a failed engine will not reduce the speed of the aircraft and will maintain the necessary stability and controllability.

Approach

Final and most difficult stage of the flight, before the landing of the aircraft. In this case, the pilot must bring the aircraft to the trajectory - the pre-landing straight line - leading directly to the touchdown point.

This step can be done in several ways.

Visual (VZP). At the same time, the reference point for the crew is the natural horizon line, landmarks on the ground and the observed runway. It is carried out, as a rule, according to the schemes determined by the flight instructions. Allowed by the controller after visual contact with the runway is made, the aircraft is in the visual maneuvering zone.

By airborne or airfield radio navigation instruments. This method provides a landing approach under adverse weather conditions, when a safe maneuver cannot be performed by a visual method. Since in this mode the crew strictly observes the established and many times tested algorithm of actions that maintains the specified flight parameters and exercises mutual control of all systems, it practically eliminates gross errors that lead to loss of speed and stall.

It is believed that the visual method is more economical in terms of fuel consumption. But the choice always remains with the crew and the dispatcher, who provides air traffic control and sees the entire situation over the airfield.

Analyzing the cases of accidents associated with the landing of aircraft past the runway or the ship rolling out of it, it can be seen that they are the result of an uncoordinated change of direction at the decision height (CLL). Obviously, in this case, was not ready to land. In each case, there was a discrepancy between the expected behavior - the ship did not obey the control, carrying out an arbitrary movement. This is due to a sharp increase in the drag of the ship, because. creates a large slip angle. There is a decrease in translational speed, which affects the operation of the rudder, lift. The aircraft goes off track.

The movement of the aircraft, not controlled by the pilot, the maximum deviation of the rudders leads to the effect of their "shadowing", changes the effort to the opposite.

An unauthorized change in the trajectory of movement along the pre-landing line leads to to these consequences:

Course deviations in the vertical (roll) and horizontal (pitch) plane;
The efforts on the controls are reversed;
Decrease in flight speed, as a result - departure of the aircraft from the trajectory of the glide path;
Due to the occurrence of a roll, the attention of the pilot is diverted;
There is a risk of damage to the wing on an obstacle at low altitude, because. exit from an uncontrolled turn occurs at a large bank angle.

Therefore, when flying along the glide path on the VPR, the course deviation correction is possible within the limits, the requirements of which are determined by the requirements of the governing documents, strictly using a coordinated piloting technique. AT specifications the liner has the ability to correct deviations with the help of a turn - coordinated and controlled.

If all the actions taken did not lead to the correction of the trajectory of the airship, then the commander decides approach to the second circle and more thorough preparation for the landing approach.

glissade- "slip") - a vertical projection of the flight path of the aircraft, along which it descends immediately before landing. As a result of glide path flight, the aircraft enters the landing zone on the runway.

In paragliding, the basic glide slope is the direct path immediately before landing.

Glide path angle- the angle between the plane of the glide path and the horizontal plane. The glide slope angle is one of the important characteristics of an airfield runway. For modern civil airfields, it is usually in the range of 2-4.5 °. The magnitude of the glide slope angle can be affected by the presence of obstacles in the airfield area.

In the Soviet Union, the typical glide path angle was 2°40′. The International Civil Aviation Organization recommends a glide path angle of 3° (Appendix 10 to the Chicago Convention of 1944, Volume 1, Recommendation 3.1.5.1.2.1).

Sources

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary: [A - Z] / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov.- 1st ed. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1991. - ISBN 5-85270-160-2; 2nd ed., revised. and additional- M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia; SPb. : Norint, 1997. - S. 1408. - ISBN 5-7711-0004-8.

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An excerpt characterizing Glissad

Denisov frowned even more.
“Squeeg,” he said, throwing a purse with several gold pieces. “Gostov, count, my dear, how much is left there, but put the purse under the pillow,” he said and went out to the sergeant-major.
Rostov took the money and, mechanically, putting aside and leveling heaps of old and new gold, began to count them.
- BUT! Telyanin! Zdog "ovo! Inflate me all at once" ah! Denisov's voice was heard from another room.
- Who? At Bykov's, at the rat's? ... I knew, - said another thin voice, and after that Lieutenant Telyanin, a small officer of the same squadron, entered the room.
Rostov threw a purse under the pillow and shook the small, damp hand extended to him. Telyanin was transferred from the guard before the campaign for something. He behaved very well in the regiment; but they did not like him, and in particular Rostov could neither overcome nor hide his unreasonable disgust for this officer.
- Well, young cavalryman, how does my Grachik serve you? - he asked. (Grachik was a riding horse, a tack, sold by Telyanin to Rostov.)
The lieutenant never looked into the eyes of the person with whom he spoke; His eyes were constantly moving from one object to another.
- I saw you drove today ...
“Nothing, good horse,” answered Rostov, despite the fact that this horse, bought by him for 700 rubles, was not worth even half of this price. “I began to crouch on the left front ...” he added. - Cracked hoof! It's nothing. I will teach you, show you which rivet to put.

Those who live in the area of airports know that most often taking off liners soar up a steep trajectory, as if trying to get away from the ground as soon as possible. Indeed, the closer the earth, the less the ability to respond to an emergency and make a decision. Landing is another matter.

A 380 lands on a runway covered with water. Tests have shown that the aircraft is capable of landing in crosswinds with gusts up to 74 km/h (20 m/s). Although FAA and EASA regulations do not require reverse braking devices, Airbus designers decided to equip two engines closer to the fuselage with them. This made it possible to obtain an additional braking system, while reducing operating costs and reducing preparation time for the next flight.

Modern jet passenger liner designed for flights at altitudes of approximately 9-12 thousand meters. It is there, in very rarefied air, that it can move in the most economical mode and demonstrate its optimal speed and aerodynamic characteristics. The interval from the completion of the climb to the beginning of the descent is called cruise flight. The first stage of preparation for landing will be the descent from the flight level, or, in other words, following the arrival route. The final point of this route is the so-called initial approach checkpoint. In English, it is called Initial Approach Fix (IAF).

From the IAF point, movement begins according to the approach to the aerodrome and landing approach, which is developed separately for each airport. The approach according to the scheme involves further descent, passing the trajectory set by a number of control points with certain coordinates, often making turns and, finally, reaching the landing straight. At a certain point on the landing straight line, the liner enters the glide path. Glide path (from French glissade - glide) is an imaginary line connecting the entry point to the start of the runway. Passing along the glide path, the aircraft reaches the MAPt (Missed Approach Point), or go-around point. This point is passed at the decision altitude (CLL), i.e. the height at which the go-around maneuver should be initiated if, prior to reaching it, the pilot-in-command (PIC) did not establish the necessary visual contact with landmarks to continue the approach. Before the PLO, the PIC should already assess the position of the aircraft relative to the runway and give the command “Sit down” or “Leave”.

Chassis, flaps and economics

On September 21, 2001, an Il-86 aircraft belonging to one of Russian airlines, landed at Dubai Airport (UAE) without releasing the landing gear. The case ended in a fire in two engines and the decommissioning of the liner - fortunately, no one was hurt. There was no question of a technical malfunction, just the chassis ... they forgot to release it.

Modern liners, compared to aircraft of past generations, are literally packed with electronics. They implement a fly-by-wire electrical remote control system (literally “fly on the wire”). This means that the rudders and mechanization are set in motion by actuators that receive commands in the form of digital signals. Even if the aircraft is not flying in automatic mode, the movements of the steering wheel are not directly transmitted to the rudders, but are recorded in the form of a digital code and sent to a computer that will instantly process the data and give a command to the actuator. In order to increase the reliability of automatic systems, two identical computer devices (FMC, Flight Management Computer) are installed in the aircraft, which constantly exchange information, checking each other. In FMC, a flight task is entered with the indication of the coordinates of the points through which the flight path will pass. Electronics can guide the aircraft along this trajectory without human intervention. But the rudders and mechanization (flaps, slats, spoilers) modern liners are not much different from the same devices in models released decades ago. 1. Flaps. 2. Interceptors (spoilers). 3. Slats. 4. Ailerons. 5. Rudder. 6. Stabilizers. 7. Elevator.

Economics is at the heart of this accident. The approach to the airfield and landing approach are associated with a gradual decrease in the speed of the aircraft. Since the amount of wing lift is directly related to both speed and wing area, in order to maintain enough lift to keep the car from stalling into a tailspin, the wing area needs to be increased. For this purpose, mechanization elements are used - flaps and slats. Flaps and slats perform the same role as the feathers that birds fan out before falling to the ground. Upon reaching the speed of the start of the release of mechanization, the PIC gives the command to extend the flaps and almost simultaneously - to increase the engine operation mode to prevent a critical loss of speed due to an increase in drag. The greater the deflection angle of the flaps/slats, the greater the mode required by the engines. Therefore, the closer to the runway the final release of mechanization (flaps / slats and landing gear) takes place, the less fuel will be burned.

On domestic aircraft of old types, such a sequence for the release of mechanization was adopted. First (for 20-25 km to the runway) the chassis was produced. Then for 18-20 km - flaps at 280. And already on the landing straight, the flaps were fully extended, into the landing position. Today, however, a different methodology has been adopted. In order to save money, pilots tend to fly the maximum distance “on a clean wing”, and then, before the glide path, reduce speed by intermediate flap extension, then extend the landing gear, bring the flap angle to the landing position and land.

The figure shows a very simplified approach to landing and takeoff in the airport area. In fact, schemes can differ markedly from airport to airport, as they are drawn up taking into account the terrain, the presence of high-rise buildings near and no-fly zones. Sometimes there are several schemes for the same airport depending on weather conditions. So, for example, in the Moscow Vnukovo, when entering the runway (VVP 24), the so-called. a short circuit, the trajectory of which lies outside the Moscow Ring Road. But in bad weather, planes enter in a long pattern, and the liners fly over the South-West of Moscow.

The crew of the ill-fated IL-86 also used the new technique and extended the flaps to the landing gear. Knowing nothing about the new trends in piloting, the Il-86 automation immediately turned on the voice and light alarm, which required the crew to release the landing gear. So that the signaling would not irritate the pilots, it was simply turned off, just as a boring alarm clock is turned off when awake. Now there was no one to remind the crew that the chassis still needed to be released. Today, however, instances of the Tu-154 and Il-86 aircraft with modified signaling have already appeared, which fly according to the approach method with a late release of mechanization.

Based on actual weather

In information reports, one can often hear a similar phrase: "Due to the deterioration of weather conditions in the area of airport N, crews make decisions about takeoff and landing based on the actual weather." This common stamp causes domestic aviators to laugh and indignant at the same time. Of course, there is no arbitrariness in the flying business. When the aircraft passes the decision point, the aircraft commander (and only he) finally announces whether the crew will land the liner or the landing will be aborted by a go-around. Even with the best weather conditions and the absence of obstacles on the runway, the PIC has the right to cancel the landing if, as the Federal Aviation Rules say, he is “not sure of the successful outcome of the landing.” “Go-around today is not considered a miscalculation in the work of the pilot, but on the contrary, it is welcomed in all situations that allow for doubt. It is better to be vigilant and even sacrifice some amount of burned fuel than put the lives of passengers and crew at even the slightest risk,” explained Igor Bocharov, Head of Flight Operations at S7 Airlines.

The course-glide path system consists of two parts: a pair of course and a pair of glide path radio beacons. Two localizers are located behind the runway and radiate a directional radio signal along it at different frequencies at small angles. On the runway center line, the intensity of both signals is the same. To the left and to the right of this direct signal of one of the beacons is stronger than the other. By comparing the intensity of the signals, the aircraft's radio navigation system determines on which side and how far it is from the center line. Two glide path beacons stand in the area of the touchdown zone and act in a similar way, only in a vertical plane.

On the other hand, in making decisions, the PIC is strictly limited by the existing rules of the landing procedure, and within the limits of this regulation (except for emergency situations like a fire on board), the crew does not have any freedom of decision-making. There is a strict classification of approach types. For each of them, separate parameters are prescribed that determine the possibility or impossibility of such a landing under given conditions.

For example, for Vnukovo Airport, a non-precision instrument approach (according to locators) requires passing a decision point at an altitude of 115 m with a horizontal visibility of 1700 m (determined by the meteorological service). To land before the VLOOKUP (in this case, 115 m), visual contact with landmarks must be established. For an automatic landing according to ICAO category II, these values are much lower - they are 30 m and 350 m. Category IIIc allows a fully automatic landing with zero horizontal and vertical visibility - for example, in complete fog.

Safe hardness

Any air passenger with experience in flights by domestic and foreign airlines has probably noticed that our pilots land planes “softly”, while foreign ones land “hard”. In other words, in the second case, the moment of touching the strip is felt in the form of a noticeable push, while in the first case, the aircraft gently “grinds” to the strip. The difference in landing style is explained not only by the traditions of flight schools, but also by objective factors.

Let's start with some terminological clarity. A hard landing in aviation is called a landing with an overload that greatly exceeds the standard. As a result of such a landing, the aircraft, in the worst case, suffers damage in the form of permanent deformation, and at best, requires special Maintenance aimed at additional control of the state of the aircraft. As Igor Kulik, Leading Pilot Instructor of the Flight Standards Department of S7 Airlines, explained to us, today a pilot who made a real hard landing is removed from flights and sent for additional training in simulators. Before going on a flight again, the offender will also have to test-training flight with an instructor.

The landing style on modern Western aircraft cannot be called hard - it's just about increased overload (about 1.4-1.5 g) compared to 1.2-1.3 g, characteristic of the "domestic" tradition. In terms of piloting technique, the difference between landings with relatively less and relatively more g-loads is explained by the difference in the procedure for leveling the aircraft.

To leveling, that is, to prepare for touching the ground, the pilot proceeds immediately after passing the end of the runway. At this time, the pilot takes over the helm, increasing the pitch and transferring the aircraft to the pitching position. Simply put, the aircraft “turns its nose”, which results in an increase in the angle of attack, which means a small increase in lift and a drop in vertical speed.

At the same time, the engines are transferred to the “idle gas” mode. After some time, the rear landing gear touches the strip. Then, reducing the pitch, the pilot lowers the front strut onto the runway. At the moment of contact, spoilers (spoilers, they are also air brakes) are activated. Then, reducing the pitch, the pilot lowers the front strut onto the runway and turns on the reverse device, that is, additionally slows down with engines. Wheel braking is applied, as a rule, in the second half of the run. The reverse is structurally made up of shields that are placed in the path of the jet stream, deflecting part of the gases at an angle of 45 degrees to the course of the aircraft - almost in the opposite direction. It should be noted that on aircraft of old domestic types, the use of reverse during the run is mandatory.

Silence on the sidelines

On August 24, 2001, the crew of an Airbus A330 flying from Toronto to Lisbon discovered a fuel leak in one of the tanks. It took place in the sky over the Atlantic. The commander of the ship, Robert Pish, decided to leave for an alternate airfield located on one of the Azores. However, on the way, both engines caught fire and failed, and there were still about 200 kilometers to the airfield. Rejecting the idea of landing on the water, as giving almost no chance of salvation, Pish decided to make it to land in gliding mode. And he succeeded! The landing turned out to be tough - almost all the pneumatics burst - but the disaster did not happen. Only 11 people received minor injuries.

Domestic pilots, especially those operating Soviet-type airliners (Tu-154, Il-86), often complete the alignment with the holding procedure, that is, for some time they continue flying over the runway at a height of about a meter, achieving a soft touch. Of course, holding landings are more popular with passengers, and many pilots, especially those with extensive experience in domestic aviation, consider this style a sign of high skill.

However, today's global trends in aircraft design and piloting prefer landing with an overload of 1.4-1.5 g. Firstly, such landings are safer, since holding landings contain the risk of rolling out of the runway. In this case, the use of reverse is almost inevitable, which creates additional noise and increases fuel consumption. Secondly, the very design of modern passenger aircraft provides for a touchdown with increased G-force, since the operation of automation, for example, the activation of spoilers and wheel brakes, depends on a certain value of the physical impact on the landing gear (compression). This is not required in older types of aircraft, since the spoilers are switched on there automatically after turning on the reverse. And the reverse is turned on by the crew.

There is another reason for the difference in landing style, say, on the Tu-154 and A 320, which are close in class. Runways in the USSR were often notable for low cargo density, and therefore in Soviet aviation they tried to avoid too much pressure on the surface. The Tu-154 rear pillar bogies have six wheels each - this design contributed to the distribution of the weight of the machine over a large area during landing. But the A 320 has only two wheels on the racks, and it was originally designed for landing with more overload on stronger lanes.

Isle of Saint Martin Caribbean, divided between France and the Netherlands, gained fame not so much because of its hotels and beaches, but thanks to the landings of civilian liners. In that tropical paradise heavy wide-body aircraft such as Boeing-747 or A-340 are flying from all over the world. Such cars need a long run after landing, however, at the airport of Princess Juliana, the strip is too short - only 2130 meters - its end is separated from the sea only by a narrow strip of land with a beach. To avoid rolling out, Airbus pilots aim at the very end of the strip, flying 10-20 meters above the heads of vacationers on the beach. This is how the trajectory of the glide path is laid. Photos and videos with landings on about. Saint-Martin has long bypassed the Internet, and many at first did not believe in the authenticity of these filming.

Trouble on the ground

And yet, really hard landings, as well as other troubles, happen on the final leg of the flight. As a rule, not one, but several factors lead to accidents, including piloting errors, equipment failure, and, of course, the elements.

A great danger is the so-called wind shear, that is, a sharp change in wind strength with height, especially when it occurs within 100 m above the ground. Suppose an aircraft is approaching the runway at an IAS of 250 km/h with zero wind. But, going down a little lower, the plane suddenly runs into tailwind having a speed of 50 km/h. The pressure of the incoming air will drop, and the speed of the aircraft will be 200 km/h. The lifting force will also drop sharply, but the vertical speed will increase. To compensate for the loss of lift, the crew will need to add engine power and increase speed. However, the aircraft has a huge inertial mass, and it simply will not have time to instantly gain sufficient speed. If there is no headroom, a hard landing cannot be avoided. If the liner encounters a sharp gust of headwind, the lift, on the contrary, will increase, and then there will be a danger of a late landing and rolling out of the runway. Landing on a wet and icy strip also leads to rollouts.

Man and machine

Approach types fall into two categories, visual and instrumental.
The condition for a visual approach, as with an instrument approach, is the height of the base of the clouds and the visual range on the runway. The crew follows the approach pattern, focusing on the landscape and ground objects, or independently choosing the approach trajectory within the allocated visual maneuvering zone (it is set as a half circle centered at the end of the runway). Visual landings allow you to save fuel by choosing the shortest this moment approach trajectory.
The second category of landings is instrumental (Instrumental Landing System, ILS). They, in turn, are divided into accurate and inaccurate. Precise landings are made using a course-glide path, or radio beacon, system, with the help of course and glide path beacons. The beacons form two flat radio beams - one horizontal, depicting the glide path, the other vertical, indicating the course to the runway. Depending on the equipment of the aircraft, the course-glide path system allows for automatic landing (the autopilot itself steers the aircraft along the glide path, receiving a signal from radio beacons), director landing (on the command device, two director bars show the positions of the glide path and heading; the task of the pilot, operating the helm, is to place them accurately in the center of the command device) or beacon approach (the crossed arrows on the command device depict the course and glide path, and the circle shows the position of the aircraft relative to the required course; the task is to combine the circle with the center of the crosshairs). Inaccurate landings are performed in the absence of a course-glide path system. The line of approach to the end of the runway is set by radio engineering means - for example, installed at a certain distance from the end of the far and near driving radio stations with markers (LBM - 4 km, BBM - 1 km). Receiving signals from the "drives", magnetic compass in the cockpit shows whether the plane is to the right or left of the runway. At airports equipped with a course-glide path system, a significant part of landings are made on instruments in automatic mode. The ICFO international organization has approved a list of three categories of automatic landing, with category III having three subcategories - A, B, C. For each type and category of landing, there are two defining parameters - the horizontal visibility distance and the height of vertical visibility, it is also the height of decision making. In general, the principle is as follows: the more automation is involved in the landing and the less the “human factor” is involved, the lower the values of these parameters.

Another scourge of aviation is side wind. When the aircraft flies with a drift angle when approaching the end of the runway, the pilot often has a desire to “tuck” the steering wheel, to put the aircraft on the exact course. When turning, a roll occurs, and the aircraft exposes a large area to the wind. The liner blows even further to the side, and in this case the go-around becomes the only correct decision.

In a crosswind, the crew often tries not to lose control of the direction, but eventually loses control of the height. This was one of the reasons for the Tu-134 crash in Samara on March 17, 2007. The combination of "human factor" with bad weather cost the lives of six people.

Sometimes a hard landing with catastrophic consequences results from incorrect vertical maneuvering on the final leg of the flight. Sometimes the plane does not have time to descend to the required height and is above the glide path. The pilot begins to "give the helm", trying to enter the trajectory of the glide path. In this case, the vertical speed sharply increases. However, with an increased vertical speed, a greater height is also required, at which alignment must be started before touching, and this dependence is quadratic. The pilot, on the other hand, proceeds to equalize at a psychologically familiar height. As a result, the aircraft touches the ground with a huge overload and crashes. The history of civil aviation knows many such cases.

Airliners of the latest generations can be called flying robots. Today, 20-30 seconds after takeoff, the crew can, in principle, turn on the autopilot and then the car will do everything itself. Unless there are extraordinary circumstances, if an accurate flight plan is entered into the on-board computer database, including the approach path, if the airport of arrival has the appropriate modern equipment, the liner will be able to fly and land without human intervention. Unfortunately, in reality, even the most advanced technology sometimes fails, aircraft of outdated designs are still in operation, and the equipment of Russian airports continues to be desired. That is why, rising into the sky, and then descending to the ground, we still largely depend on the skill of those who work in the cockpit.

We would like to thank the representatives of S7 Airlines for their help: Pilot Instructor Il-86, Chief of Flight Operations Staff Igor Bocharov, Chief Navigator Vyacheslav Fedenko, Pilot Instructor of the Flight Standards Department Directorate Igor Kulik

Approach- one of the final stages of an aircraft flight immediately preceding landing. Provides the launch of the aircraft on the trajectory, which is landing straight leading to the landing point.

The landing approach can be carried out both using radio navigation equipment (and is called in this case an instrument approach), and visually, in which the crew is oriented along the natural horizon line, the observed runway and other landmarks on the ground. In the latter case, the approach may be called a visual (VZP) approach if it is an IFR (instrument flight rules) flight continuation or a VFR approach if it is a VFR (visual flight rules) flight continuation.

glide path(fr. glissade- "slip") - the flight path of the aircraft, along which it descends immediately before landing. As a result of glide path flight, the aircraft enters the landing zone on the runway.

In paragliding, the basic glide slope is the direct path immediately before landing.

Glide slope angle - the angle between the plane of the glide path and the horizontal plane. The glide slope angle is one of the important characteristics of an airfield runway. For modern civil airfields usually lies within 2-4.5°. The magnitude of the glide slope angle can be affected by the presence of obstacles in the airfield area.

In the Soviet Union, the typical glide path angle was 2°40′. The International Civil Aviation Organization recommends UNG 3°.

Also, the glide path is sometimes called the process of lowering the aircraft before landing.

Compared to other types of aircraft, the aircraft has the longest take-off phase and the most difficult in terms of organization of control. The take-off starts from the moment you start moving along the runway for the takeoff run and ends at the height of the transition.

Takeoff is considered one of the most difficult and dangerous stages of flight: during takeoff, engines operating under conditions of maximum thermal and mechanical loading may fail, the aircraft (relative to other phases of flight) is filled with fuel to the maximum, and the flight altitude is still low. The biggest disaster in the history of aviation occurred on takeoff.

Specific take-off procedures for each type of aircraft are described in the aircraft flight manual. Corrections can be made by exit circuits, special conditions(e.g. noise reduction rules), however, there are some general rules.

For acceleration, the engines are usually set to takeoff. This is an emergency mode, the duration of the flight on it is limited to a few minutes. Sometimes (if the length of the strip allows) during takeoff, the nominal mode is acceptable.

Before each takeoff, the navigator calculates the decision speed (V 1) up to which the takeoff can be safely terminated and the aircraft will stop within the runway. The calculation of V 1 takes into account many factors, such as: the length of the runway, its condition, coverage, height above sea level, weather conditions (wind, temperature), aircraft loading, balance, and others. In the event that the failure occurred at a speed greater than V 1 , the only solution would be to continue the takeoff and then land. Most types of civil aviation aircraft are designed in such a way that, even if one of the engines fails on takeoff, the power of the others is enough to, after accelerating the car to a safe speed, rise to the minimum height from which you can enter the glide path and land the aircraft.

Before takeoff, the pilot extends the flaps and slats to the calculated position in order to increase the lift force, and at the same time, minimally impede the acceleration of the aircraft. Then, after waiting for the permission of the air traffic controller, the pilot sets the takeoff mode to the engines and releases the wheel brakes, the aircraft starts the takeoff run. During the takeoff run, the main task of the pilot is to keep the car strictly along the axis, preventing its lateral displacement. This is especially important in windy conditions. Up to a certain speed, the aerodynamic rudder is ineffective and taxiing occurs by braking one of the main landing gear. After reaching the speed at which the rudder becomes effective, control is made by the rudder. The nose landing gear on the takeoff run is usually locked for turning (the aircraft turns with its help while taxiing). As soon as takeoff speed is reached, the pilot smoothly takes over the helm, increasing the angle of attack. The nose of the aircraft rises ("Lift"), and then the entire aircraft lifts off the ground.

Immediately after takeoff, to reduce drag (at a height of at least 5 meters), the landing gear is removed, and (if any) exhaust lights, then the wing mechanization is gradually removed. Gradual cleaning is due to the need to slowly reduce the lift of the wing. With the rapid removal of mechanization, the aircraft can give a dangerous drawdown. In winter, when the plane flies into relatively warm air layers, where the efficiency of the engines drops, the drawdown can be especially deep. Approximately according to this scenario, the Ruslan disaster occurred in Irkutsk. The procedure for retracting the landing gear and mechanizing the wing is strictly regulated in the RLE for each type of aircraft.

Once the transition height is reached, the pilot sets the standard pressure to 760 mmHg. Art. Airports are located at different heights, and air traffic control is carried out in a single system, therefore, at the transition altitude, the pilot must switch from the altitude reference system from the runway level (or sea level) to the flight level (conditional height). Also, at the height of the transition, the engines are set to the nominal mode. After that, the take-off stage is considered completed, and the next flight stage begins: climb.

There are several types of aircraft takeoff.

Takeoff with brakes. The engines are brought to the maximum thrust mode, at which the aircraft is held on the brakes; after the engines have reached the set mode, the brakes are released, and the run begins.
Takeoff with a short stop on the runway. The crew does not wait until the engines reach the required mode, but immediately starts the takeoff run (the engines must reach the required power up to a certain speed). In this case, the length of the takeoff increases.
Takeoff without stopping rolling start), "on the go". The engines enter the desired mode in the process of taxiing out from the taxiway to the runway, it is used at high intensity of flights at the airfield.
Takeoff with the use of special means. Most often, this is a takeoff from the deck of an aircraft carrier in conditions of a limited runway length. In such cases, a short run is compensated by springboards, ejection devices, additional solid rocket motors, automatic landing gear wheel holders, etc.
Takeoff of an aircraft with a vertical or short takeoff. For example, Yak-38.
Takeoff from the surface of the water.

The ground equipment of the ILS system (ILS) consists of a localizer and glide path radio beacon and three marker beacons (currently, the near marker is not installed at all airports). At some airports, a driving radio station is installed at a distant marker point to build an approach maneuver.

When performing international flights, you can find two options for placing ground equipment.

The first option: the localizer is located on the continuation of the runway axis and the center line of the course zone coincides with the runway axis, i.e. its occurrence corresponds to the landing angle (landing course).
Second option: the localizer is located not on the runway axis, but to the side-to the right or to the left of it in such a way that the center line of the course zone passes through the middle marker point at an angle of 2.5-8 ° to the landing line.

Localizers of the ILS system operate in a circular mode. Recently, sector beacons have been installed: the angular width of the sector is 70 ° on both sides of the landing line. The main characteristics of the heading and glide path areas of the HUD are given in the SP-50 ground equipment section, since they coincide with the corresponding characteristics of the SP-50 with the new adjustment.

The marker beacons of the ILS system operate at the same frequency (75 MHz) as in the SP-50 system and emit the following code signals: near marker - six points per second; middle marker - alternately two dashes and six dots per second; far marker (in ICAO materials - external marker) - two dashes per second.

The ground equipment of the SP-50 system is located at civil aviation airports according to a single standard scheme.

As a result of the adjustment of the equipment of the SP-50 system in accordance with the ICAO standards adopted for the ILS system, localizers and glide slopes have the following technical data.

Localizer area. The center line of the course area is aligned with the runway axis. The linear width of the zone at a distance of 1350 m from the touchdown point is 150 m (in the range from 120 to 195 m), which corresponds to an angular deviation from the runway longitudinal axis of at least 2° and not more than 3°.

The range of the beacon ensures the reception of signals at a distance of more than 70 km from the beginning of the runway at an altitude of 1000 m in a sector 10° wide on each side of the runway axis (see 91). For the ILS localizer, the range of action is 45 km at a flight altitude of 600 m.

Glide path radio beacon zone. The optimal glide path inclination angle is 2°40". With the optimal descent angle of 2°40" the aircraft flies over the far and near markers (at their standard location) at altitudes of 200 and 60 m, respectively.

The angular width of the glide path zone at the optimum angle of inclination can be within 0.5-1°4, and with an increase in the angle of inclination, the rate of descent increases, and the width of the zone increases to facilitate aircraft piloting.

The range of the glide path radio beacon ensures the reception of signals at a distance of at least 18 km from it in sectors of 8® to the right and left of the landing line. These sectors, in which signal reception is ensured, are limited in height by an angle above the horizon equal to 0.3 of the descent glide path angle, and by an angle above the glide path equal to 0.8 of the descent glide path angle.

The ground equipment of the SP-50M system is intended for use during director and automatic landing approaches in accordance with ICAO standards of the 1st category of complexity.

The stability of the center line of the course is ensured by more stringent requirements for the equipment.

In cases where the length of the runway significantly exceeds the optimum, the width of the heading zone is set at least 1 ° 75 "(half zone).

All other parameters of course glide path beacons are regulated strictly in accordance with ICAO technical standards.

Director approach control systems

Currently, on civil aviation aircraft with a gas turbine engine, director (command) landing approach control systems (“Drive”, “Path”) are installed. These systems are semi-automatic aircraft control systems during landing approach.

The command device in such systems is the null indicator PSP-48 or KPP-M.

By semi-automatic control, one should understand the piloting of the aircraft using the command instrument, the arrows of which must be kept at zero during landing approach from the moment the fourth turn begins and on the landing straight. In contrast to the usual approach along the SP-50, the null indicator in this case does not inform the pilot about the position relative to the equisignal zones of the localizer and glide path beacons, but indicates to him what roll and pitch angles must be maintained in order to accurately enter the equisignal zones and follow them.

The director control system simplifies piloting by converting navigation and flight information about the position of the aircraft in space and forming it into a control signal that is displayed on the command instruments. The deviation of the command needle is a function of several parameters that the pilot takes into account in a normal landing approach using separate instruments: PSP-48 of the SP-50 system, attitude indicator, compass and variometer. Therefore, the command arrows are in the center of the scale not only when the aircraft follows strictly in the equisignal zones of the course and glide path, but also when the correct exit to the equisignal zones is made.

Simplified director control systems are installed on aircraft already in operation, operating on the basis of existing on-board and ground equipment: course radio receiver KRP-F, glide path radio receiver GRP-2, navigation indicator NI-50BM or course setter ZK-2B, central vertical gyro TsGV or gyrosensors (AGD, PPS). In addition, the kit includes: a calculator, a communication unit with an autopilot if there is a connection with the AP on the plane.

The landing maneuver on an aircraft equipped with a director control system is performed as follows:

1. Having received permission to enter the airport area equipped with the SP-50 or ILS system, the crew, acting in accordance with the approved this airport scheme, takes the plane to the place where the fourth turn begins; while the crew must:

a) on the automatic course NI-50BM, set the map angle equal to the landing MPU for this direction landings;
b) on the NI-50BM wind generator, set the wind speed to zero;
c) before turning on the power on the M-50 panel, make sure that the arrows of the course and glide path of the null indicator are in the center of the scale, otherwise set them in the center with a mechanical corrector;
d) put the “SP-50-ILS” switch in the position corresponding to the system by which the approach is performed;
e) install on the control panel SP-50 the appropriate channel for the operation of course-glide path beacons;
f) turn on the power on the M-50 panel;
g) turn on the power on the director system control panel;
h) verify the correct operation of the control and hydraulic fracturing by the deviation of the zero-indicator needles and by the closing of the blenders on their scales (the blenders are closed after the receiver lamps have warmed up and in the presence of signals from ground beacons);
i) during the landing approach on the section between the third and fourth turn with the flags closed, check the electrical zero balancing of the heading bar by turning the balance knob on the M-50 panel in one direction or another until the pointer arrives at the center of the scale. The check should be clarified after the aircraft has gone straight.

2. The moment of the beginning of the fourth turn can be determined:

a) with the help of the FCA on the CSD of the DPRM;
b) in azimuth and range of the goniometer-rangefinding system "Svod";
c) at the command of the controller observing the aircraft with the help of a ground-based radar;
d) by airborne radar;
e) according to the scale bar of the command instrument.

3. At the moment of the beginning of the fourth turn, create such a roll on the side of the deviation of the course bar of the command device, at which it will be set to zero on the scale. During the turn, the pilot must keep the zero indicator needle in the center of the scale, reducing or increasing the roll. The roll is always created in the direction of the arrow deviation.

In the case of an early start of the fourth turn, in order to keep the directional needle in the zero position, it will initially be necessary to create a bank of 17-20 °, which subsequently must be reduced in some cases up to the complete withdrawal of the aircraft from the roll. However, when approaching the runway alignment, the direction arrow of the command device will show the need to create a roll, which is required for a smooth fit into the landing line.

At the late start of the fourth turn, the heading changes by an angle greater than 90°, and the sign of the roll changes. In this case, the entire maneuver, including taking into account the drift angle, is processed automatically by the system.

When making the fourth turn, you must constantly ensure that the course flags are closed on all null indicators.

4. After completing the fourth turn and entering the equisignal zone of the course, you should continue flying without descending, keeping the director arrow of the command device in the center of the scale by rolls. At

In this case, it is necessary to follow the glide path arrow, which, after the fourth turn, will be deflected upwards. The glideslope blenders must be closed.

As soon as the arrow of the command instrument approaches the white circle, immediately start descending, keeping the glide path director arrow in the center of the black circle.

5. Based on the flight height of the LBM, determine the possibility of continuing the descent along the glide path: if above the LLB, when the arrow of the glide path is within the white circle, the flight altitude will be equal to or exceed the one set for the given airport, then further descent along the glide path can be continued; if, with proper maintenance of the glide slope, the aircraft has reached the set flight altitude of the LSM and there were no signals of its actual flight, then immediately stop the descent along the glide path and, after the flight of the LSM, descend according to the rules established for the OSB system.

6. After the flight of the LBM, keep the director arrows of the command zero indicator in the zero position, while not allowing the drop below the minimum weather set for the given airport, out of sight of the ground.

When the ground (landing lights) is detected, it is necessary to switch to visual flight and land.

Errors in setting the heading on the NI-50BM machine, exceeding 15 ° in total with the drift angle, will not allow landing at all using the director control system. In order to avoid this, before the start of the fourth turn, the navigator must once again make sure that the “Map Angle” setting on the NI-50BM course machine is correct and that the course system is working correctly. If the magnetic heading readings are significantly greater than the actual heading on the landing straight, the aircraft will deviate to the right from the axis of the equisignal zone of the localizer, and if the readings are too low - to the left. To ensure good accuracy of the system on the landing straight at large drift angles, the navigator must ensure the operation of the heading system with high accuracy; the error should not exceed ±2°.

In addition, the accuracy of the aircraft approaching the runway axis and following it also depends on the accuracy of the location of the localizer zone and setting the localizer to zero by turning the button on the control panel SP-50.