Excursion to the monuments of Byzantine culture. Architecture of Byzantium (V-XV centuries)
The Cathedral of Sophia in Constantinople (532-537) - the most grandiose and most outstanding work of Byzantine architecture - is one of the most significant monuments of world architecture. It is to this that the main attention should be paid when studying Byzantine architecture.
The builders of the Sophia of Constantinople - Anthemius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus - were outstanding engineers and architects, very developed, highly educated people who owned the entire amount of knowledge of their era. Both of them had a very broad architectural and general outlook. This allowed them to freely choose in the past what could be useful in the construction of the greatest building of our time.
The Cathedral of Sophia in Constantinople is one of those works of architecture that are deeply connected with the past, in which all the main achievements of the architecture of previous eras are taken into account, but in which the new dominates. New purposes, new constructive techniques and new architectural and artistic features are so prevalent in Sofia that they come to the fore, pushing aside the traditional and overshadowing it.
Sophia of Constantinople was the main building of the entire Byzantine Empire. It was a church at the social center of the capital and a patriarchal temple. Due to the fact that in Byzantium religion played a huge role in the life of the state, Sophia was the main public building of the empire. This outstanding significance of Sophia was very clearly expressed in the choice of place for it and in its very placement among the dominant buildings of the Byzantine capital. The main streets of the city converged from several city gates to the main street (Mesi). The latter ended with Augustion Square, which overlooked Sofia, the Hippodrome and the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors. This entire complex of public buildings, among which Sophia dominated, was the ultimate goal of movement along the city streets, the opposite end of which branched into the main roads of the European part of the empire. Augustion and the buildings adjacent to it occupied the apex of the triangle on which Constantinople was located, located at the tip of the European continent, extended towards Asia. It was the intersection of two main trade routes of antiquity and the Middle Ages: the west-east land route that connected Europe with Asia, and the north-south sea route (the so-called “from the Varangians to the Greeks”), which connected Scandinavia with the Mediterranean Sea. Sofia was the largest, most compact and massive architectural structure not only on Augustion, but throughout the capital. It marked a place that could truly be called the center of the world in early Byzantine times.
It did not stand isolated, but was surrounded by many different buildings and courtyards. It was impossible to go around it directly. Visible only from the adjacent courtyards and streets, it towered above neighboring buildings, colonnades of peristyle courtyards and squares. Only its eastern façade was completely open: the apse was visible all the way to the top. This arrangement in the ensemble gave especially great architectural significance to the crowning parts of the building. It was they who were visible above other buildings when approaching Sofia; from a distance they crowned the center of the capital, and even the architectural ensemble of the entire Constantinople.
The new typological solution for Sophia, found by Anthimius and Isidore, was based on the requirements of everyday life, which were reflected in the organization of the cathedral plan. Sophia was a building in which the broad masses of the people, who flocked to the cathedral from the streets and squares of the capital, met with the highest aristocracy and bureaucracy of the empire, headed by the emperor and patriarch, emerging from the neighboring Grand Palace. These meetings were accompanied by complex theatrical ceremonies of a religious nature. The sequence of actions in symbolic form depicted the history of the world as interpreted in the Holy Scriptures. Conventional movements and actions were carried out in a strictly regulated manner by numerous clergy of various ranks, headed by the patriarch and the emperor. They were dressed in rich clothes made of beautifully selected valuable fabrics. Through solemn processions and strictly recorded exclamations and chants, the most significant moments in the history of mankind were depicted, which were concentrated around the story of Christ.
In order to hold such services, it was necessary to create a structure with a large open central space for ceremonies and spacious surrounding rooms for a huge number of spectators. In the center there should have been a pulpit-pulpit - the focal point of the ceremonies, depicting in the course of the action either the cave where Christ was born, or the mountain on which he was crucified, etc. The central part of the building was supposed to have an appendage in the form of an altar, depicting the heavenly kingdom, while it itself represented the earth, where the events depicted took place. There was constant communication between earth and heaven, but the altar was separated from the audience by a low barrier that hid the heavenly world. Those present could look into it only periodically, when the gates opened. In front of the main room there would have been a more closed part of the interior, in which participants in the processions could gather before leaving for the main room.
Similar functional requirements, which arose in a less developed form in the previous period, gave rise to the architectural type of domed basilica, which was chosen for the main temple of the Byzantine Empire by Anthemius and Isidore. However, the colossal size of Sofia, the special crowd and the originality of the ceremonies taking place in it - all this forced the architects of Sofia to rethink the very architectural type of the domed basilica and organize it in a new way, taking into account the Roman architectural experience, which was well known to them.
Anthimius and Isidore, both originally from Asia Minor, based their construction on the Asia Minor type of domed basilica, where the central part of the building was covered with a dome. This introduced the beginning of centricity into the building, as a result of which the basilica was greatly shortened, as if pulled up to the dome. Such a domed basilica contained the main necessary premises: the main central room, which is adjacent to the altar, two-tier galleries for spectators and a narthex.
The question arises about the main difference between such domed basilicas - the predecessors of Sophia - from the ancient Christian basilicas of Rome - these first above-ground Christian churches in the western capital of the empire after the official recognition of the new religion. The difference is the addition of a dome. In the ancient Christian basilica, everything was directed towards the altar, which was the main, sole center of the interior. In the domed basilica, along with the altar, a second center appears under the dome. This indicates a profound change in the very concept of a church building, due to a change in religious ideology.
With the further development of the domed basilica, the dome did not supplant the altar apse. However, gradually it became the main visible center of the interior. The centric principle he introduced intensified more and more. The basilica shortened and pulled itself closer to the dome. As a result, the main architectural emphasis was transferred from the apse to the dome, and the building turned from a basilica into a centric structure.
The main difficulty that the architects faced when designing Sofia was that the domed basilicas that existed in the Byzantine world were very modest in size, while Sofia was supposed to become a grandiose structure. Another difficulty, purely constructive, was that the wooden ceiling was not suitable for an interior with a diameter of more than 30 m. The dome had to be made of stone for ideological and artistic reasons. It was supposed to depict the vault of heaven crowning the earth - the central part of the interior. The entire building inside had to look uniform, it all had to be stone from the base to the vault locks.
Vaulted buildings of very large dimensions were well known to Anthimius and Isidore. Apparently, the architects took them as a model, choosing the most grandiose and remarkable buildings. The plans of the architects corresponded to the most grandiose Roman basilica, at the same time a vaulted one, and the most outstanding domed building, and it turned out to be possible to combine the features of these two buildings. These two buildings were the Basilica of Maxentius and the Pantheon. If in our time an architect were asked to name the two most outstanding Roman buildings, he could not have chosen better.
The plan of Sophia clearly indicates that it was the Basilica of Maxentius that was the basis of her system. The plan is divided into nine parts by four intermediate pillars, so that the central nave becomes three-part. Architects borrowed choirs from domed basilicas, which allowed them to greatly increase the capacity of the side naves intended for worshipers.
The most outstanding architectural achievement of the two builders of Sofia is the technique with which they linked together the Basilica of Maxentius and the dome of the Pantheon in their work. This technique is one of the most daring and successful ideas in the architecture of the past. This ingenious solution simultaneously embraced the functional, constructive and artistic sides of architecture. It led to a surprisingly complete complex architectural image.
Anthymius and Isidore invented a system of semi-domes connecting the dome of Sophia with its basilica base. This system includes two large half-domes and five small ones. In principle there should have been six small semi-domes, but one of them was replaced by a barrel vault over the main entrance to the central part of the narthex interior. This departure from the general system perfectly highlighted the main entrance portal and two smaller portals on its sides. Processions entered through these portals from the narthex; the emperor and the patriarch passed through the main portal. The half-domes perfectly connected the basilica and the dome. This created a completely new type of domed basilica, the only representative of which is the Sophia of Constantinople.
The compositional technique used by Anthimius and Isidore fixes the location of the dome in the very center of the building. In the domed basilicas of previous times, the location of the dome constantly fluctuated due to the possibility of lengthening or shortening the barrel vaults located to the west and east of the dome. Usually the altar still attracted the dome.
In Sofia, half-domes create similar shapes to the east and west of the dome, having the same depth. Thanks to this, the dome cannot be moved from its place and confidently marks the center of the building. At the same time, the apse conch is included in the system of semi-domes. This means that the altar part is naturally tied to the dome and to the main part of the interior. This is how an architectural system was created that legitimized both centers of Sofia - the dome and the apse, the pulpit and the altar. As a result, the system of semi-domes perfectly connected the orientation towards the altar of the basilica and the centricity of the domed building. In Sofia, the basilica and the dome are internally organically connected with each other. This is truly a real domed basilica, the crown of the entire development of this architectural type.
The semi-dome of Sofia played an equally significant role in terms of architectural and constructive aspects. The huge dome of Sophia creates a very strong thrust. In the southern and northern directions, the thrust is extinguished by powerful pillars, two on each side. The vaults of the side naves, located in two tiers, participate in extinguishing the expansion of the dome in the same direction. In the eastern and western directions, the thrust is extinguished by semi-domes. The outstanding significance of this solution lies in the fact that the semi-domes fulfill their constructive role without cluttering the interior of the main part and without violating its integrity.
The artistic significance of the System of Domes and Half-Domes of Sofia is also remarkable. This system simultaneously solves a whole range of artistic problems.
The half-domes all together form a geometric figure approaching an oval. It is by this that they create an intermediate link between the basilica and the centric building. In principle, three figures are formed, inscribed into each other, gradually transforming into one another: the rectangle of the main outline of the plan, the oval of the semi-domes and the circle of the dome. The oval serves as a transition from a rectangle to a circle.
In concrete spatial expression, this scheme takes on a particularly complete and organic form. The semi-domes continue the rhythm of increasing interior space from the side naves to the central one. As the semi-domes develop towards the dome, the space increases until it culminates in the center. In the opposite direction, the central space under the dome gradually falls in both directions and is then replaced by the space of the side naves.
A comparison of Sophia and the Pantheon reveals the fundamental difference between them in the interpretation of the dome. In the Pantheon, the space under the dome is static, it is a closed, huge piece of space in its compactness, firmly outlined by the walls and dome. In Sofia, the central interior space is light, airy and dynamic. Openwork colonnades connect it with all the surrounding neighboring rooms. The space increases on all sides towards the crowning dome. The dome itself appears and is, as it were, built in time before the eyes of the viewer; it gradually develops from semi-domes. The latter cover only part of the interior, while the dome closes the entire interior from above.
The huge central space of Sofia and the much lower and cramped side naves, divided into two tiers, are arranged differently and contrast with each other. At the same time, they complement each other and, when combined, form a single architectural image.
The side naves intended for the people are similar to palace halls. As studies of the Great Palace of Constantinople show, this similarity really took place and, moving from the palace to Sofia, noble parishioners saw before them a continuation of the suites of palace halls. Each side nave of Sofia is perceived as a picturesque space somewhat unclear in its boundaries and dimensions. Transverse walls with arches cover not only the outer walls, but also the colonnades of the middle nave. As you move along the nave, the transverse walls and columns form a variety of combinations, visible from different angles and various mutual intersections. When larger pieces of the outer walls are exposed, their openwork character emerges. At the bottom they are denser, as they are cut through only by three large windows in each division of the wall. Above these windows, continuous glazing opens under the semi-circular curve of the vault, so that light flows freely into the interior. On the opposite side of the nave this corresponds to the colonnades opening into the middle nave.
The overall picturesqueness of the side naves is enhanced by the marble cladding that rises to the base of the vaults and is fenced on top with a marble cut cornice, as well as the gold mosaics covering the vaults. Due to the strong division of space and numerous transverse walls, different parts of the rooms are illuminated differently. The degree of illumination is deeply thought out and precisely weighed by the craftsmen.
In relation to such compositions, one researcher successfully used the term “light organ”: he likened to music the harmonious composition of shades of light and shadow in architecture. Color effects are combined with this. The marble slabs covering the walls and the marble of the columns are finely selected. Pale pink and complementary pale green shades predominate. Overall, a single, gentle tone is formed. The chiaroscuro of the carved cornices and the light ornamental colored frames of the golden mosaic surfaces complement the overall effect, deeply thought out and unusually harmonious.
Due to the relatively low height of the side naves, their dimensions are well related to the height of a person. The columns supporting the vaults are, to a certain extent, characterized by an order origin inherited from antiquity. They protrude forward and play the role of a connecting element between the human figure and the interior space. Leaning on the columns, the eye reads the architectural composition as a whole.
The structure of the central nave is based on different compositional principles. The interior of the main part of Sofia has gigantic dimensions and a clearly defined spatial shape. The space of the main room of Sofia is clearly limited by a strict linear skeleton and straight and concave surfaces. The main structure is simply and clearly indicated by vertical lines that flow into the lines of the arches and the circumference of the dome ring. Paul Silentiarius, a contemporary of Justinian I, figuratively says that the dome of Sophia appears to be floating in the air, as if it were suspended on a chain to the sky.
Conclusion: early Byzantine architecture gave rise, first, to the formation of an independent variety of Byzantine architecture, and then to the creation, on an ancient and Byzantine basis, of its own architecture. The greatest merit of early Byzantine architecture was that it gave a powerful impetus to its further development.
Initially, Byzantium was a small city - the center of the Greek colonies. However, during the reign of Emperor Constantine, the influence of Byzantium increased many times over.
In 330 AD, the ruler chooses it as his permanent residence. Since then, the city has been called Nea Roma, but more often it is called Constantinople. After 65 years, the city became the permanent capital of the eastern state.
At that time, the art of construction had reached a high level in Byzantium, into which motifs of ancient architecture were organically woven.
Beautiful buildings are being erected in the city, designed to praise the greatness of the state and the emperor himself, as well as buildings of a religious and cult nature - palaces, a hippodrome, temples, churches and various engineering structures.
Already in the 6th century, the foundations of a new architectural tradition were laid, and its own monumental style emerged. received vivid expression in temple buildings.
Monastery of Saint Lazarus in Larnaca - a unique example of a temple with a high bell tower Features of Byzantine architecture
The main distinguishing feature of Byzantine architecture is the monumentality and complexity of its structures. In addition, the following features of the architectural appearance of the buildings can be highlighted:
- Unity of materials- for the construction of buildings of all types, they are used, connected using mortar. Walls and pylons were erected from them, and vaulted structures were made. The second type of building material was natural stone. In the process of laying the walls, the craftsmen used natural-colored stone.
If these two materials were combined in the composition of the building, an interesting decorative effect was obtained in which layers of stone masonry alternated with brick.
- Development of engineering— the architects of Byzantium were good designers, so they invented a way to evenly distribute the loads from volumetric domes onto the square base of the building.
With the help of special triangular arches in the form of sails, built on the sides of the square, the entire load was distributed onto stable corner pylons.
- Invention of the drum- this was the name of the intermediate insert in the form of a cylinder, placed between the dome and the walls. The drum made it possible to make the dome solid, because the windows were located on its side walls. It was the dome on the drum that became the most expressive element of Byzantine architecture. Subsequently, this system was used by architects in many countries at different times.
- Vaulted ceilings- Byzantine craftsmen built centric structures and experimented with various methods of constructing vaults.
Example of a Byzantine style building Masterpieces of the Byzantine style
The striking and most characteristic example of the development of vaulted architecture in Byzantium is. Due to its size and luxurious decoration, this building has become one of the pearls of world architecture.
The composition of the temple is centric in plan, and the square space of its center is covered with a dome on sails. The diameter of the dome reaches 33 meters, and the load from it is distributed over four powerful 23-meter pylons. At the same time, the stability of the vault and the absorption of horizontal forces is achieved due to two semi-domes, which are supported on the same pylons on both sides along the longitudinal axis of the temple.
Another type of Byzantine building is the type of domed basilica, an example of which is the Church of Hagia Irene in Constantinople.
As a result of the fusion of both types, the famous five-domed system arises, rising above the building in the shape of an equilateral cross, which was later widely used during the construction of churches and temples.
Interior of Byzantine buildings
The following types of materials are used for interior decoration of buildings in Byzantium:
- Glass smalt— the vaults were covered with a mosaic of multi-colored pieces of smalt.
- Marble- amazingly beautiful compositions were laid out on the walls using a mosaic of pieces.
- Marble tiles- used as a floor covering.
Thanks to the use of high quality materials, the design of churches and temples was luxurious and rich.
Influence on the architecture of other countries
The experience and construction principles of Byzantine architects are readily borrowed in Europe and Asia, in the Greek world and in the Slavic regions.
The beginning of the 13th century was marked by the emergence of new cultural centers in Crete, Macedonia, Serbia and Bulgaria. In the period from the 13th to the 15th centuries, monasteries were also built in Byzantium in Serbia and Greece.
However, the Byzantine style influences not only the development of Orthodox Christian architecture in Slavic countries, but also the character of Islamic architecture in Serbia and Turkey.
In 998, during the reign of Prince Vladimir, a significant historical event took place - the Baptism of Rus'. As a result, Christianity became the state religion. Along with the new faith, Byzantine art came to Kievan Rus, which penetrated into all spheres of church life.
Sofia Kyiv
In the middle of the 11th century, the city of Kyiv became one of the most beautiful and richest European cities. In 1037, St. Sophia Cathedral was built, which was considered the main state temple of the country. For Kievan Rus it was as important as the Church of Hagia Sophia for Constantinople.
However, the creators somewhat departed from the Byzantine canons. The cathedral has significant differences in design and layout features, and is also characterized by a large number of domes - thirteen of them, in contrast to the five domes traditional for Byzantium.
During the construction process, there was a gradual expansion of the plan, which initially had the shape of a Greek cross. Further, as a result of numerous reconstructions and corrections, 9 naves with ten apses and 13 domes of a characteristic shape were built.
Church architecture of Novgorod
Similar architectural solutions were embodied in the St. Sophia Cathedral of Novgorod, built in 1054. However, it is crowned with only five domes of amazing beauty.
Distinctive features of the architecture of Novgorod churches of the 12th century are the following:
- The apses have oval outlines.
- The sail level has been slightly reduced.
- The arched frieze is used as a decorative element of facades.
A century later, the church architecture of Novgorod changes its character somewhat, and in the 13th century, among the characteristic features of the buildings, the following can be distinguished:
- Use of semi-cylindrical vaults.
- The design of the buildings is characterized by the presence of a single dome with four pylons.
Thus, it has its own features that differ from Byzantine architecture.
Church of the Savior on Nereditsa is a striking example of the Byzantine architectural style Hagia Sophia (Aghia Sovya)
Hagia Sophia is the main attraction of the former Constantinople. It served as a model for many other buildings in the city. The cathedral was built in 360. In 404 it was destroyed and burned by a crowd protesting against the expulsion of Patriarch John Chrysostom, and it was restored in 415 under the reign of Theodosius. The cathedral was burned for the second time during the Nika uprising. Under Justinian it was restored again. After several earthquakes (553-557), the domes needed restoration, which was carried out in 563. In 1204, the church was plundered by the crusaders. In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II ordered the cathedral to be converted into a mosque.
Subsequent rulers slightly changed the interior of the cathedral, decorating it with a marble pulpit, choirs and the Sultan's box. And four minarets, supporting walls, mausoleums and fountains were built outside. In 1847-1849. Sultan Abdulme-Dzhid entrusted the restoration of the cathedral to Gaspar Fossati. In 1935, St. Sophia was declared a museum.
Previously, the main entrance was on the west side. The central gate through which the emperor and his retinue entered was called the Orea Porta. Later they were moved to the south side of the narthex. Entering the Orea Porta, you find yourself in a lobby decorated with mosaics from the time of Justinian. All wall paintings were destroyed by the iconoclasts (729-843). The ones we see today date from a later era. Above the exit to the porch you can see a beautiful mosaic from the 10th century. It depicts Mary with the baby Jesus, who receives gifts from two emperors: on the right, Constantine offers him a miniature city, and on the left, Justinian presents him with a miniature temple. Ten doors connect the vestibule to the central part of the temple. Above the "imperial portal" is a second mosaic depicting Christ enthroned.
Entering the main hall, one cannot help but admire the genius of the architects. They managed to create the impression that the central dome and two smaller domes decorating the basilica were floating above the temple. This impression is reinforced by the windows at the bottom of the central dome. Eight green medallions with the names of Allah, Muhammad, the first caliphs and imams, added by Fossati, do not really harmonize with the interior decor. Church columns are decorated with floral patterns reminiscent of lace. One of the eight columns, located in the northern wing, is considered miraculous. Here, according to legend, St. appeared. Georgy. A large mosaic depicting Mary and the Child symbolizes the victory of the iconoclasts over the iconoclasts. Frescoes of St. Ignat, St. John Chrysostom and St. Ignatius Theodoros.
In the eastern part of the church, fragments of images of angels dating back to the 14th century are still visible. In the galleries you will also see many interesting mosaics. The central gallery offers a magnificent view of the entire church. In the northern gallery there is a mosaic depicting Emperor Alexander, who reigned for only thirteen months. And on the southern gallery there is a portrait of Empress Zoe and her third husband (Constantine IX Monomakh). On the right is a mosaic portrait of Emperor John II Komnenos (1118-1143), his wife Irene and their son Alexius. In the courtyard on the left are the mausoleums of the sultans and princes.
Day off is Monday. Open from 9.30 to 16.30. Galleries are closed from 11.30 to 13.00.
Churches of Istanbul (Constantinople):
CHURCH OF ST. POLUECTA
At the intersection of Sehzadebasi Cad. and Ataturk Blvd. there are the ruins of one of the first churches of the time of Justinian, built in 527. After excavations carried out by Martin Harrison, these ruins allowed us to imagine the former grandeur and splendor of the basilica.
CHURCH OF ST. SERGIA AND BACHUS
This church was built in 527 under the reign of Justinian. It is also known as "Little St. Sophia". The architectural plan of the church is an octagon inscribed in a rectangle. Previously, the church was decorated with rich mosaics. Climbing up the stairs near the narthex, you can appreciate the general appearance of the building. In the 16th century the church was turned into a mosque. The eunuch Hussein Agha is buried in the garden. It was probably he who built Cardakli Hammam in 1503, which is located slightly north of the church itself.
CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST
You can get to this church, located at the foot of the seventh hill in the Kocamustafa quarter, by walking along Samataya Cad. and turning left onto one of the first streets. This oldest church in Istanbul was founded by the Roman Studius in 462. 700 monks lived in the monastery, who created amazing icons, hymns and manuscripts. At the beginning of the 15th century. the university is located here. Unfortunately, after the earthquake in 1894, only the basilica remained. The church was converted into a mosque at the end of the 15th century. and is also known as Imrahor Cami.
CHURCH OF ST. IRINA (AGHIA IRINI)
Topkapi Sarayi Sultanahmet. One of the most ancient churches of Constantinople, located in one of the courtyards of the Topkapi Palace. Presumably built during the reign of Constantine. In 346, over 3,000 people were killed near the church due to religious differences. During the Nika uprising, the church was burned and then rebuilt under Justinian in 537. The earthquake of 740 significantly damaged the church. After the fall of the city, the church served as an arsenal for the Janissaries, and in the 19th century. - a warehouse of old things. This church is a classical basilica in the shape of a cross. The vestibule of the church is lined with mosaics from the time of Justinian. In the Church of St. Irene there is a sarcophagus in which, according to legend, the remains of Constantine rest.
CHURCH OF CHRIST THE SAVIOR
You can get there by metro connecting Aksaray with Edirnekapi. Open from Wednesday to Sunday from 9.30 to 16.30. If you like Byzantine art, we recommend visiting this church, now called Kariye Cami. You need to go to Edirnekapi and walk along Hocacakir Cad. Previously, the monastery where this church was located was outside the city walls. The church was built by the stepmother of Emperor Flexios I Komnenos.
PANTOCRATOR MONASTERY
Near Ataturk bulv., in a small square, there is the ancient monastery of Pantokrator, which is now called Zeyrek Cami. The monastery, which was important in the Byzantine era, was surrounded by many rooms that no longer exist.
THEOTOKOS KYRIOTISSA
This church was converted into a mosque by Fatih and is now called Kalenderhane Cami. As archaeological excavations have shown, the church was built on the foundation of an older church. A fresco depicting scenes from the life of Francis of Assisi was found here. Another treasure of the church is the 7th century mosaic, which depicts the Presentation of the Lord. The mosaic dates from the pre-iconoclastic period.
CHURCH OF ST. MARY OF MONGOLSKAYA
In the Fener quarter, not far from the Patriarchate, there is the Church of the Virgin. According to legend, the church was founded by Princess Maria Paleologina, who married a Mongolian prince and lived for 14 years in Mongolia. After the death of her husband, Maria returned to her homeland, founded a monastery, where she spent the rest of her life. Inside is a delightful 11th-century mosaic icon depicting the Virgin Mary.
Patriarchy
In the heart of the Fener quarter since the beginning of the 17th century. is the World Patriarchate. This quarter, once home to wealthy Greeks, is now inhabited by the Muslim poor. The main entrance, Orta Kapi, is closed and never opens. It is painted black in memory of George V, who was executed here on April 22, 1821. In 1941, a fire destroyed the building, but it was later restored. The church, dating back to 1720, houses the ashes of St. Omonius, St. Te-ofana and St. Euphemia.
Hippodrome (At Meydani)
The Hippodrome, the heart of the former Constantinople, is a wide area located behind the seraglio and bounded by the outer walls of the Sultan Ahmet Mosque. This is a gathering place for the “blues” and “greens”, who subsequently launched the Nika uprising. Previously, the hippodrome was decorated with statues and could accommodate one hundred thousand spectators.
Today, only three monuments remain here. The first, made of pink granite, was created under the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III (1549-1503 BC) in honor of his victory in Syria. The broken obelisk was brought to Constantinople by Theodosia in the 4th century. and in 390 it was installed at the hippodrome. The marble pedestal on which it stands is decorated with bas-reliefs. The second monument is a bronze dragon column brought from the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. This column is the oldest monument of Hellenistic culture in Istanbul. The third monument is the Column of Constantine. Unfortunately, time has left an indelible mark on her. The column, created around the 4th century, was restored by Konstantin Porfirorodny.
Cistern (Yerebatan Saray)
Located on Yekebatan Cad., next to the Blue Mosque. Open daily, except Tuesday, from 10.00 to 19.00. The famous underground cistern was built in 532 by Justinian. Its length is 140 m and its width is 70 m. The ceiling is supported by 336 columns decorated with Corinthian capitals.
PrefaceBefore becoming the luxurious and brilliant home of the Ottoman sultans, Istanbul, and
then Constantinople, was no less brilliant capital of the Byzantine
empires.
Byzantium arose as a result of the division of the Roman Empire into two parts. City on the Bosphorus,
founded by Emperor Constantine, became the center of a new eastern state. IN
unlike the western part of the Roman Empire, its eastern part was always closer to
Greek culture, and the main language here was also Greek.
Over time, the Byzantine emperors gave preference to the orthodox
Christianity, preferring it to Catholicism.
built by Emperor Justinian in 536. The dome of the cathedral, which
designed by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, was one of the miracles
light of his time. Now that the scaffolding that had been damaging it for more than a decade has been removed
interior of the cathedral, one can finally appreciate the grandiose expanse of this
converted first into a mosque and then into a museum of a Byzantine church.
Hagia Sophia played a big role in Turkish history. Many Ottoman
sultans are buried on its territory. The mosaics of Hagia Sophia are one of the most important
the ingredients of her glory. Upper Imperial Gallery, installed at 13
century especially for the Empress and her retinue, decorated with the most beautiful
mosaics and marble figures. If Hagia Sophia is a monument from the heyday of the Byzantine Empire, then
Chora Church, no less beautiful, but much smaller in size, belongs to
the Renaissance period of the 13th century. It is located near Edirnekapi and
the city wall, which itself is a monument to the Byzantine
military engineering art. Mosaics and frescoes decorate absolutely everything
interior walls of the church.
The ceiling of the narthex, where scenes from the Bible are depicted, glitters with gold, while
like the frescoes of the side chapel (Parecclesion) are executed in strict black and white
colors in which the robes of saints are painted, and soft bed colors that
used to depict some of life's most dramatic scenes
Jesus Christ. In the 5th century in Eastern Syria, near Aleppo, lived Saint Simeon, who discovered a special type of asceticism - standing
on the pillar. Renouncing the world in every possible way and caring about the mortification of the flesh, the monk was subjected to
countless temptations, partly described in Luis Buñuel’s film “Simeon the Hermit.”
Having spent several decades at an altitude of 16 meters, Simeon was honored by Christians from all over
world, including the Persians, Armenians and British.
Around that very pillar, which exists to this day (Byzantine miniaturists loved
depict Simeon's pillar in the form of a column with a capital completed by an elegant balustrade inside
which housed the saint himself; sometimes a ladder was attached to the column), in the 80–90s of the 5th century there was
a monastery complex was erected, the grandiose design of which was unmatched only by
among the imperial ensembles of late Rome.
The octagonal core of Kalat-Semana (translated from Arabic as “Simeon’s fortress”) is surrounded by three
sleeves. Together they form a spatial cross, almost the same as in the Church of the Holy Apostles
in Constantinople. Now the temple is in ruins, and this is exactly what it looked like immediately after construction.
unknown, but thanks to the testimony of Evagrius Scholasticus we know that the central core,
enclosing Simeon's pillar remained open.
Following Kalat-Seman, a whole architectural movement of the 5th–6th centuries arose, represented by
the churches of Simeon the Stylite the Younger on Divnaya Mount, John in Ephesus and the Prophets, Apostles
and Martyrs at Gerasa.
Historically, in Thessaloniki, which traces its history from ancient times to the present day, the largest number of artifacts and monuments have been preserved mainly from the times of the Byzantine Empire.
A powerful fortress, trapezoidal in plan, with alternating towers of square, triangular and round shapes surrounded the polis. During the Roman and early Christian periods there was an additional defensive wall, the remains of which are scattered sporadically around the perimeter of the fort.
The construction of a protective fence on the foundation of an earlier one, erected in the Hellenistic and Roman eras, dates back to the end of the 4th century, during the reign of Emperor Theodosius the Great (379-395).
From the sea side, the policy was protected by a low fortress wall, where in the southwestern part a seaport was built by Constantine the Great.
On the surviving walls and towers of Thessaloniki, in some places there are remains of inscriptions laid out in ceramic tiles - medieval graffiti, messages from the past, testifying to the changes and strengthening of fortifications over the millennia.
In every district of the old city there are monuments reminiscent of the Byzantine and post-Byzantine era, when Thessaloniki was of great importance in the political and spiritual life of the empire, second only to the capital - Constantinople. Under the Ottomans, the city served as the center of the empire on the Balkan Peninsula.
The vast majority of monuments included in the UNESCO list are objects of a religious nature. Perhaps the only exception to this list of rules are the Byzantine baths, sandwiched among the modern concrete boxes of buildings in the narrow streets of the Upper Town.
Traveling around Thessaloniki, it is interesting to observe the evolution of architectural styles of temples, their diversity and elegance of forms. From the early Christian basilica of Panagia Achiropiitos with three naves, a vestibule and a side chapel and the basilica with five naves in honor of the Holy Great Martyr Demetrius and two side chapels to the transitional form - the cross-domed architecture of early Byzantium - Hagia Sophia.
Panagia Chalkeon is a cross-domed temple of the Middle Byzantine period. Cross-domed architecture accompanied the construction of sanctuaries in the late Byzantine era: St. Panteleimon, the Holy Apostles, St. Catherine, the Transfiguration of the Savior, the Vlatadon Monastery and the Temple of the Prophet Elijah.
Along with the variety of architectural forms of monuments with graceful proportions, skillfully laid out from tiles of arcs, apses and arches, the traveler can trace the evolution of architectural forms and sophisticated architecture from early Christianity to the era of the Palaiologan Renaissance.
Of great value to art lovers are the majestic Rotunda and the small Church of St. David, lost in the numerous crooked streets of the Upper Town - monuments known for their unique mosaics of early Christianity. Like the two-story Cathedral of the Archangels with a crypt in the basement, the Church of St. Nicholas Orphan with magnificent frescoes, perfectly preserved from the reign of the Palaiologos dynasty.
During the years of Ottoman rule (1430-1912), almost all Christian shrines were gradually converted into Muslim mosques. New mosques, madrassas, shelters for the poor, the Bezesteni market, hammams are being built next to Christian shrines, and Thessaloniki is gradually acquiring an oriental flavor.
In addition to religious monuments, new tanks are being built to collect drinking water, and the water supply system is being improved. In the Upper City, among the winding narrow streets, like a snake on the head of the Gorgon Medusa, numerous water springs are decorated with skillful marble carvings.
During the Ottoman period, the Vardar fort was built in the southwest and the Eptapyrgio fort on the Acropolis was rebuilt.
Due to the prohibitions of the Turkish authorities, during the post-Byzantine period, Christians living compactly built low churches. As a rule, these were three-nave basilicas with a low sloping roof.
After the arrival of Jewish settlers from Spain in 1492, Thessaloniki acquired the appearance of a multicultural and multi-religious city. This identity would remain until the liberation of Thessaloniki from the Turks in 1912.
Fortress walls
The history of the city, like fragments of a mirror, is reflected in the surviving inscriptions - these living witnesses of distant events, on individual towers and sections of the fortress wall.
In the 4th century, a fortress wall was erected on the basis of a fence that existed in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The fortress is trapezoidal in plan, about 8 km long, and will become reliable protection for the inhabitants of Thessaloniki for more than a millennium and a half. On flat areas, the fortress towers will be rebuilt from square to triangular. This is due to the evolution in fortification.
In the early period, the fortress walls were fenced with an additional wall - a barrier. On the sea side, until 904, the protective fence was squat.
Fortress wall in the west
A section of the wall from the early Christian period has been preserved not far from Democracy Square. In this place until 1874 there was the “Golden Gate” - the main entrance to the city from the west. Having passed them, the traveler found himself on the main road “artery”, which would later be called the Avenue of the Byzantines.
From the Golden Gate the wall rose smoothly to the intersection with St. Demetrius Street. In this place there was a gate called Lithium, after passing through which the traveler found himself on a street crossing the entire city from west to east.
Section of the wall in the northwest
From the non-existent Lithium Gate to the north, a rather steep climb leads to the Acropolis, along which the fortress fence stretches. This section was partially completed during the time when Manuel Palaiologos (1369-1373) was the despot of Thessaloniki.
Acropolis
The fortress, which separated the Acropolis from the upper city, began approximately from the area opposite the Vlatadon monastery and ended at the Trigoniou tower. The fact that the defensive towers face the Acropolis indicates that the inner side, i.e. The defenders were originally facing the sea, and the Acropolis was a completed fort from a much later period. The inscription preserved on the Lapard tower should be identified with restoration work at the end of the 12th century under the leadership of the prominent Byzantine commander Andronikos.
If you follow the wall to the east, you will come out exactly to the gate of Anna Palaeologus (1355-1356), as evidenced by the inscription on the marble column. This gate led outside the fortress.
In the northeast the fort ends with the Tower of Trigoniu. The cylindrical tower was built in the 15th century on top of the existing square one built by the Byzantines.
The Trigoniu Tower, Top Hane and the White Tower are built in a completely different architectural configuration, since with the spread of firearms, the appearance of defensive structures was adapted.
Eptapyrgio
Eptapyrgio Fort rises on the highest section of the Acropolis, the north-eastern end of the fortress walls. The fortress went through many construction phases: from the early Christian, later Byzantine, and Turkocracy periods, when in the 19th century it was converted into a prison for prisoners.
If you carefully visually inspect the fort, you will find marble blocks from different eras with corresponding engravings built into the walls.
The fortress consists of 10 towers: 8 of them are quadrangular in shape, and 2 are triangular. Of interest are the marble slabs above the central entrance with characteristic inscriptions in Turkish, dated 1431.
Conflicting sources do not provide a clear picture regarding Eptapyrgio. The toponym (Gendi-Kule) arose during the Ottoman period. Apparently its name corresponds to a similar fort in Constantinople (with seven towers).
Until the 80s of the last century, Eptapyrgio operated as a prison.
Eastern walls
The fortress fence rising majestically and menacingly on this site was partly erected on monolithic stone, and partly on the foundations of former Roman fortifications. The steep descent from the Acropolis continues all the way to St. Demetrius Street, where the slope suddenly becomes gentle.
In this place the New Golden Gate rose, and even lower were the Kassandrian Gates (or Kalamarias). After 1867, the fortress from this gate to the White Tower was dismantled along with the wall along the sea.
The White Tower was built at the beginning of the 16th century to strengthen the fort’s defenses on the site of a more dilapidated tower/
Basilica of the Holy Great Martyr Demetrius
On the street of the same name as the temple, north of the Roman agora, on top of the Roman baths, where the Roman army officer Demetrius was imprisoned and executed in 303, after 313 a small sanctuary was built as a place of worship for the martyr.
At the beginning of the 5th century, the prefect of Illyria Leontius was miraculously healed at the relics of the holy great martyr Demetrius. By his order, in gratitude for the healing, a large basilica was built, which burned down in a fire in 620.
With the support of the prefect Leontius and the bishop of Thessaloniki, the church was rebuilt in the form of a five-nave basilica and covered with a sloping wooden roof.
This temple burned down in a fire in 1917. The restoration lasted from 1918 to 1948. Some of the columns and structural elements of the burnt building were restored thanks to the efforts of the architect Aristotelis Zachos. After the devastating fire, 11 mosaic scenes from the 5th, 7th and 9th centuries survived.
The shrine with the relics of St. Demetrius is located in the northwestern part of the church, in the place where it is believed to have been located in the early Christian era.
The basilica is dedicated to the defender and patron of the city of Thessaloniki, the Holy Great Martyr Demetrius.
Crypt
Under the altar of the sanctuary there is a crypt, which in the post-Byzantine period was the center of worship for pilgrims, where believers collected the abundant ointment from a special container in the floor. After the church was converted into a mosque (1493), the crypt was abandoned and covered with earth. Apparently, they forgot about its existence.
The crypt was discovered only after a devastating fire in 1917.
Since 1985, 7 crypt halls have been open to visitors. On display are found coins and vessels in which myrrh was collected, as well as marble columns and arches of early Christianity.
Chapel of St. Efthymios
To the south of the altar, in the 9th-10th centuries, the right aisle was built to the Church of St. Demetrius - a three-nave basilica dedicated to St. Ephthymius. The interior decoration of the temple was painted in 1303 by the protostrator Michael Glava Tarhanioti and his wife Maria. The frescoes decorating the chapel are a masterpiece worthy of admiration from the Palaiologan Renaissance.
Rotunda
dome mosaic 
angel in the dome
The best preserved of all the buildings from the palace of the Emperor Galeria is located in the northern part on the axis of the central street that connected the chambers and the triumphal arch.
Its purpose is still a matter of debate, but the most likely one today is in honor of the god Jupiter, or Kaviros. It is possible that the building where religious ceremonies took place was built in honor of Constantine the Great.
The diameter of the Rotunda dome is 24.5 m, the height from the floor to the top of the roof is 29.8 m. The cylindrical wall is 6.30 m thick and is divided into 8 arched niches. During the Roman era, the southern arch served as the central entrance.
In early Christianity, the temple was consecrated either to the glory of the Incorporeal Forces or in honor of the Archangels. At the same time, an additional barrier was built around the Rotunda - an ambulatory and the eastern niche for the altar was expanded. The entrance from the west was changed by adding a narthex.
The early Christian mosaics decorating the arches of the niches and domes of the Rotunda are a priceless treasure. Strong earthquakes of the early 7th century destroyed part of the dome, the altar vault and, possibly, the ambulatory surrounding the gallery.
The apse of the altar was restored, and its frame was strengthened by two massive semicircular supports in the 9th century. At the same time, the altar is painted with a scene of the Resurrection.
Temple of St. David (Latomu Monastery)
conch mosaic 
Ezekiel's vision
Among the narrow and meander-shaped streets, in one of the dead ends, nestled a tiny sanctuary, the former cathedral of the Latomu monastery, which was dedicated to Christ the Savior. The toponym Latomu comes from a quarry where stone was mined nearby. The temple was built in the 5th century. Only its eastern part, decorated with an apse, has survived to this day.
The church is familiar to many from the world-famous mosaic of the early Christian period in the apse conch, which depicts the vision of the prophet Ezekiel.
Basilica of Panagia Achiropiitos
In the city center, on St. Sophia Street, there is a large temple of the Virgin Mary. It was built in the 5th century on the foundations of Roman baths, like a three-nave basilica with a narthex.
A small building on the south side served the needs of the temple. The right side chapel (on the south side of the altar) was built in Byzantine times and dedicated to Saint Irene. The interior of the temple is divided by two rows of columns into three naves. The perfect condition of the capitals and columns amazes. The arched vaults between the columns and in the narthex are decorated with mosaics from the 5th century.
Church of Hagia Sophia
apse behind the altar 
dome of Hagia Sophia
The church is dedicated to Christ and the wisdom of God. Construction took place at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century on the site of a destroyed early Christian basilica of the 5th century. It is a striking example of the transitional architecture from a basilica to a cross-domed church with a dome based on arches and a peristyle.
The mosaic decoration of the church belongs to three different periods and testifies to the high level of skill of the architects.
The first stage of decoration of the temple (780 - 788) is closely connected with the period of iconoclasm. The Ascension scene in the dome is the work of Renaissance masters of the Macedonian dynasty of the late 9th century, while in the conch the Virgin Mary sitting on a throne with the child Christ is depicted - a work of architects of the 11th - 12th centuries, executed on top of a cross (iconoclastic period).
Temple of Panagia Chalkeon
frescoes of the narthex 
frescoes of the narthex
South of the Roman agora, next to the copper workshops, is the temple of the Virgin Mary (Our Lady of Copperworkers). The church was erected in 1028 by Christopher of Langobardia, his wife Maria, and children: Nikephoros, Anna, Kathakali. The founder's grave is located in the left aisle (north wall).
The cross-domed temple with a narthex is strongly reminiscent of the influence of the Constantinople school of masters in the elegance and grace of the tiles in the arches, niches and apse.
The frescoes of the temple, despite poor preservation, are of great value to researchers, since they date back to the time the church was built.
Byzantine baths
In one of the many narrow streets of the Upper Town (Feotokopoulou Street), unique baths for public use from the Byzantine period have been preserved. If a Turkish hammam on the territory of Greece is not a curiosity, then baths from the Byzantine era are a rarity.
The small rectangular building with vaults and a few rooms was divided into an entrance hall, a swimming pool and a steam room. In the Ottoman era, separate partitions were installed in the baths, and after that it became possible for both men and women to visit at the same time, and not on certain days of the week. The building continued to be used as bathhouses until the 1940s.
Temple of the healer Panteleimon
Not far from the triumphal arch of Galerius, at the intersection of Iasonidou and Arrian streets, there is the Church of St. Panteleimon. The temple, the name of which is identified with the cathedral of the once existing monastery of the Mother of God Perivleptou (visible from everywhere), also known as the monastery of Isaac, the founder of which was Metropolitan Yakov (1295-1314).
Cross-domed architecture, with two domes, a narthex and two chapels and a peristyle on three sides, which was destroyed in the 20s of the last century.
Little has survived from the frescoes, but the few scenes that have survived make it possible to clearly trace the changes that took place in icon painting at the end of the 13th century.
Church of the Holy Apostles
On the western side of the lower city, near the fortress wall, at the beginning of Olympus Street, there is the Church of the Holy Apostles - the cathedral of a once-existing monastery in honor of the Virgin Mary.
The founders of the monastery are the Ecumenical Patriarch Niphon (1310-1314) and his associate Abbot Pavel. Cross-domed church with five domes, two narthexes and two side chapels. Of particular interest is the structure of the church facade, decorated with ceramic tiles in various motifs. Inside the church, mosaic decoration (without gold plates), characteristic of the Palaiologan Renaissance period, has been preserved.
Temple of Nicholas Orphanos
In the Upper Town, near the eastern fortress wall, away from the bustle and noise of the city, between the streets of Herodotus and Apostle Paul, there is the Church of St. Nicholas Orfano (Orphans) - the cathedral of a Byzantine monastery. The spacious courtyard of the monastery is decorated with a row of pyramidal cypress trees.
Architecturally, it is a basilica with an apse and two side aisles. The frescoes inside the church are wonderfully preserved and their careful examination allows connoisseurs of medieval art to enjoy contemplating the most complete and preserved painting of the Palaiologan Renaissance period.
Church of St. Catherine
Not far from the northwestern tip of the fortress, a little above Olympiada Street, at the intersection of Tsamadou and Idipoda streets, is the Church of St. Catherine - the cathedral of a Byzantine monastery.
Built at the beginning of the 14th century, the temple has a cross-domed plan, with two side chapels and five domes.
Elegant proportions, facade decoration, emphasized lines of arches, columns and vaults lined with ceramic tiles are an exceptional example of Palaiologan architecture.
The interior painting of the temple, although only partially preserved, the vibrancy of the colors and the dynamism of the images allows us to make a bold conclusion that this is a true masterpiece of the Paleologian revival.
Temple of the Transfiguration of the Savior
At the intersection of Egnatia and Palion Patron Germanou streets there is the Church of the Savior. The temple was built in the middle of the 14th century. Initially, it was either a family chapel-tomb, or a courtyard belonging to some monastery and was dedicated to the Mother of God.
The dome of the temple is based on four conchs. The narthex on the west side was added in 1936.
The frescoes of the dome are divided into three zones and were executed between 1350-1370.
Vlatadon Monastery
In the Upper Town, on Acropolis Street, the Patriarchal Stavropegic Monastery of Vlatadon is located, one of the few that has been operating since its founding.
Built in the period 1351-1371 by the student of Gregory Palamas, Dorotheus Vlatadon, who later became Metropolitan of Thessaloniki and his brother Mark.
From the original monastery complex, only the cross-domed cathedral with a peristyle and side chapels has survived.
The church was painted in the period 1360-1380 and was originally dedicated to Christ the Pantocrator. One of the frescoes depicts Archbishop Gregory Palamas. Currently, the church is dedicated to the Transfiguration of the Savior.
Temple of the Prophet Elijah
At the intersection of Olympiada and Prophet Elijah streets, on a rather steep hill, the majestic temple of Prophet Elijah was erected.
The architecture of the temple is interesting, identical to the Athonite monasteries: cross-domed, with additional space on four sides, a spacious narthex and peristyle. The Church of the Prophet Elijah is identified with the cathedral of the Akapniu monastery.
