Architectural monuments of ancient Greece - part world heritage humanity, attractions that attract the attention of tourists. The ruins of ancient temples are scattered throughout the Peloponnese and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

Unfortunately, time had little mercy on religious buildings. The ancient temples themselves are refined and openwork, earthquakes are frequent in Greece, and the local Herostrati tried to seek glory for themselves by arson. Christianity that replaced paganism did not care much about the memory of pagan ancestors. Not very conducive to the preservation of the heritage of antiquity and Muslim rule in the territory of modern Greece.

Only after the liberation wars of the early 19th and early 20th centuries did Greece occupy territory remotely close to the ancient borders. Attention to the architectural heritage of antiquity was drawn only from the second quarter of the 19th century. The study, excavations, restoration and conservation of monuments began.

The pearl of Greece is, of course, Athens. In addition to the Acropolis with the temples of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion with a portico of caryatids, the temple of Nike Apteros, in the city and the surrounding area there are many living witnesses of antiquity - the propylaea, the temple of Hephaestus (Theseion), the monument of Lysicrates (334 BC). Tower of the Winds - built in 44 BC. weather station - bears the features not of Greek democracy, but of Roman imperial architecture.

The Temple of Hera at Paestum (5th century) and the Temple of Hephaestus at Athens (Theseion) are the two best-preserved monuments. Basically, the monuments of Ancient Greece are picturesque ruins.

We know about most of the temples only from the mentions of ancient historians and the meager results of excavations.
Much more survived other monuments of Ancient Greece - amphitheaters. Carved into the mountain slopes, they resisted destruction more strongly and amaze with their excellent acoustics. The amphitheaters in Epidaurus, Delphi, Athens, now empty, were once as crowded as cinemas and supermarkets are now. Theaters at that time were also religious, and not entertainment, structures. They were dedicated to the gods, and the performances on the stage were divine services.

Byzantine civilization left fortification monuments in Greece - the ancient fortress in Thessaloniki, the fortress of Mystra, the Venetian fortress of Methoni and religious ones - the temple of the Virgin Ekatondapiliani (IV c) on the island of Paros, the temple of Demetrius in Arta (IX c), the temple of Panagia in Thessaloniki (1028 g) , Kapnikeria in Athens (XI century), the Church of St. Sophia on a rock above the sea in Monemvasia. You can admire the paintings of the XIV century in the monastery of Christ the Savior in Verria.

You can also see modern buildings: the Cathedral of St. the Apostle Andrew in Patras was built from 1908 to 1974, the Cathedral of Nektarios of Aegina on the island of Aegina in 1994. All of them are worthy successors of the majestic Ancient Greek architecture.

Architecture of Ancient Greece. Periodization. Characteristic. main monuments.

The history of architecture and culture of ancient Greece is divided into three periods.
1. Ancient period - archaic. Having repelled the invasion of the Persians, having liberated their lands, the Persians got the opportunity to freely create. 600-480 AD BC.
2. The heyday is a classic. Alexander the Great conquered vast territories with different cultures, the eclecticism of these cultures was the reason for the decline of Greek classical art. The heyday came after his death. 480-323 BC.
3. Late period - Hellenism. This period ended in the thirtieth year BC with the conquest of ancient egypt Romans, which was under Greek influence.
Greece is a country with a great architectural past, in which much attention was paid to the construction of temples. Greeks in construction ancient temples back in the archaic era, wood was replaced with white marble and yellowish limestone. Such material not only looked noble, but was also distinguished by its centuries-old durability. The image of the temple resembled the ancient dwelling of the Greeks, which in its shape resembled a rectangular structure. Further, the construction continued the well-known logical scheme - from simple to complex. Very soon the layout of each temple became individual. But some features still remained unchanged. For example, the stepped foundation of temples remained unchanged. The temple was a room without windows, which were surrounded by columns in several rows, and inside the building there was a statue of a deity. The columns supported the gable roof and floor beams. The people were not allowed to enter the temple, only priests had the right to be present here, so everyone else admired its beauty from the outside.
Greek temples are different in their compositions, stylistic elements in each are used in a special way.
1. Distil - “temple in ants”. The earliest type of temple. It consists of a sanctuary, the front facade is a loggia, bounded along the edges by side walls (antami). Two columns were installed along the front pediment between the ants.
2. Forgiveness. It is similar to Antov, only not two, but four columns are installed on the facade.
3. Amphiprostyle or double prostyle. On both facades of the building there are porticos with 4 columns.
4. Peripter. Occurs most often. Columns surround the temple around the perimeter. There are six columns on both facades.

5. Dipter. A type of temple, on the side facades of which there were two rows of columns.
6. Pseudo-dipter. The same as Dipter, only without the inner row of columns.
7. Round peripter or Tholos. The sanctuary of such a temple has a cylindrical shape. The temple is surrounded by columns around the perimeter.
In Greek architecture, the types of columns and friezes were distinguished, which received the names of orders. The earliest, Doric, is associated with the culture of the Dorians who lived in mainland Greece. In the Doric order, powerful and short, tapering upwards, columns with flutes end in a capital with a square abacus and do not have a base. The Ionic order developed in insular and Asia Minor Greece. Ionic columns, thinner and more elongated, rest on a base and end with a capital carved from a rectangular block. The capital is formed by two curls (volutes). In most of the temples that have come down to us, Doric and Ionic orders are used. The Corinthian order appeared in Athens in the 5th century BC. e. The column is crowned with a magnificent capital, which is a curly shoots of acanthus. This order was widely used in the Hellenistic era. In construction, special attention was paid to natural conditions, the greatest artistic inscription of the building in the surrounding landscape. The noble forms of architecture of Ancient Greece are striking in our time. Although from a constructive point of view, everything was very simple. Only two elements were used: the bearing part (beams, lintels, slabs) and the bearing part (walls and columns).

Many different structures of a public nature were erected: palestras, stadiums, theaters, residential buildings. The theaters were built on the slopes of the hills, the stage was made across the slope, the stage was at the bottom. Residential buildings were built in such a way that a small rectangular courtyard was obtained in the center.
Main monuments: The pearl of Greece, of course, Athens. In addition to the Acropolis with the temples of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion with a portico of caryatids, the temple of Nike Apteros, in the city and the surrounding area there are many living witnesses of antiquity - the propylaea, the temple of Hephaestus (Theseion), the monument of Lysicrates (334 BC). Tower of the Winds - built in 44 BC. weather station - bears the features not of Greek democracy, but of Roman imperial architecture. The Temple of Hera at Paestum (5th century) and the Temple of Hephaestus at Athens (Theseion) are the two best-preserved monuments. Much more survived other monuments of Ancient Greece - amphitheatres. Carved into the mountain slopes, they resisted destruction more strongly and amaze with their excellent acoustics. The amphitheaters in Epidaurus, Delphi, Athens, now empty, were once as crowded as cinemas and supermarkets are now. Theaters at that time were also religious, and not entertainment, structures.

23. Art of the Aegean World. Chronology. Geographic limits. general characteristics phenomena. Bibliography of the issue.
In the development of the culture of the peoples living in mediterranean sea Aegean culture played a big role. It developed on the islands and shores of the Aegean Sea, in the eastern Mediterranean, for almost two thousand years, from 3000 to 1200 BC. simultaneously with the art of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The center of the Aegean culture was the island of Crete. It also captured the Cyclades, the Peloponnese, where the cities of Mycenae, Pylos and Tiryns were located, and the western coast of Asia Minor, in the northern part of which Troy was located. The Aegean culture is also called Cretan-Mycenaean.
Cretan architecture was dominated by vast palace complexes. Among them is the Palace of Knossos (about 16,000 sq.m.). Its throne room was decorated with an emblem in the form of a double-sided ax-labrys, sacred in Crete. With its majestic architecture, it resembled ancient Egyptian temples with halls and open courtyards. In the center is a vast rectangular courtyard of ceremonial significance. Rooms with verandas, galleries, pools, colonnades, and stairs adjoined the courtyard from all sides. A distinctive feature of Cretan architecture was the lack of symmetry in the buildings. Wooden columns played an important role in the construction of palace interiors. They tapered to the bottom without capitals, the color of the columns is red. All of them are covered with zigzag patterns, reinforcing the impression of a picturesque and dynamic solution to the space. There is a bathroom, plumbing, underground rooms - a labyrinth. Fresco painting in the form of friezes or panels.
The life of its inhabitants was depicted: solemn processions, ritual dances, people gathering bright flowers, cats hunting pheasants, fish among algae. The images are dynamic, colorful, the ornament is curled, spiral, splash of waves, wind. Dynamics is characteristic of Minoan art; frozen poses and self-absorption are alien to it. True transmission of human movement. The image of human figures is fragile, with a thin waist, the male figures are painted brown, the female figures are white. The paintings were dominated by bright, major colors. For the Cretans, nature was sacred because of its divinity. Everything divine is perfect, but nature is full of special beauty. Therefore, the Cretans often depicted flowering meadows instead of gods. The role of trees, herbs, flowers in this world was great, without them no human act could be imagined. The small plastic art of Crete, like painting, is exquisitely decorative and dynamic. These are figurines of animals (goats and kids, a bull, figures of graceful women). Ceramic vases are distinguished by subtle artistic taste. Perfection was achieved by the master of metal processing.

24. Art of the Minoan era. Chronology. Geographic limits. General characteristics of the phenomenon. Question bibliography
Minoan era 2600-1100 BC. The English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who excavated the palace of the legendary king Minos in Knossos, named the entire era and the unique civilization that developed during it after the latter. Three phases: 1) Early Minoan (2600-2000 BC), 2) Middle Minoan (2000-1600 BC) and 3) Late Minoan (1600-1100 BC) . Around 1900 BC the island is experiencing significant prosperity. At this time, the first palaces appeared in Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Archana, Zakros and Kydonia. The Minoans rendered special honors to the dead. The tombs discovered during the excavations were domed or carved into the rock - chamber, however big number burials were also found in crevices, in small caves and on the coast. The dead were placed on wooden stretchers or in sarcophagi made of wood, clay or stone, and next to them were placed funeral gifts - objects used or generally loved by the deceased during their lifetime. Initially, the Minoans used a type of writing reminiscent of Egyptian hieroglyphics (each sign is indicated by an image of an animal or object). Then the Minoans began to use "Linear A", consisting of simplified images, and, finally, after 1450 BC. and the establishment of the dominance of the Achaeans, "linear writing B" became widespread. The highest creations of the Minoans were created in the field of fine art, which is distinguished by originality, grace and liveliness. Architecture flourished, the most significant examples of which are the palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Zakros and Malia. The palatial building at Arhani, the palace at Agia Triada, the luxurious villas of nobles and landowners, and the simple dwellings of peasants and artisans should not be overlooked either. The frescoes that adorned the walls of palaces and villas deserve special mention. When after 1700 B.C. palaces were rebuilt, their walls were painted with magnificent scenes representing human images, landscapes, animals, ritual or funeral processions, competitions, etc. The architecture of the tombs and the picturesque decor of the sarcophagi are also remarkable. Characteristic works of Minoan art are ceramics and vase painting. Famous vases style "Kamares", characterized by rich colors and characteristic motifs. Finally, small Minoan plastic art, metalwork and jewelry art are known for many masterpieces of small forms.

25. Art of Mycenae. Painting. Architecture, arts and crafts. Peculiarities. Monuments
The Mycenaean culture was formed under the strong influence of the Cretan, acquiring, however, features that distinguish its monuments from the monuments of Crete itself. The murals in Tiryns, adjacent to Mycenae, are more schematic, less picturesque than in Knossos. The Cretan magical lightness has disappeared along with the incomparable Cretan elegance and pictorial craftsmanship.
The new features of the Mycenaean artistic genius are especially evident in architecture and monumental sculpture. Unlike the Cretan ones, the Mycenaean palace buildings are surrounded by fortified walls. Cyclopean masonry, so named for the huge size of the stones, which only fairy-tale giants can lift, gives the buildings a somewhat primitive, but impressive look. It is characteristic of both Mycenae and Tiryns.
Powerful stone walls do not allow the individual cells of the building to spread, as happens in the Knossos Palace, they collect the building together, turning it into a military fortress dominated by a central room - a megaron - with four internal columns supporting the roof and framing the hearth. Megarons of the kings in Mycenae and Tiryns, rectilinear in plan palace isolated buildings, consisting of an open vestibule with two pillars, a front room and a hall with a hearth in the middle, are considered the prototypes of the first Greek temples.
The gate leading to the Achaean citadels had an impressive appearance. The entrance to the acropolis of Mycenae - the famous Lion Gate - was decorated with a slab of golden yellow stone depicting two lionesses leaning with their front paws on a pedestal with a column resembling a Cretan one. The lionesses breathe with a confident power that Cretan art did not know.
Mycenaean ceramics are technically better than Cretan ones: the walls of vessels are thinner, stronger than paint, the manner of depicting a plot drawing seems careless, but the drawing itself, which served only as a decorative pattern in Cretan ceramics, has now become the spokesman for a complex artistic idea. As on Cretan vases, images of marine motifs are especially frequent here, but octopuses, cuttlefish freeze and are schematized, gradually turning into a geometric ornament. Mycenaean and Tirynthian masters loved strict symmetry, schematic forms.
The features of clarity and completeness of form, tectonics and isolation, outlined in this ancient Greek art, will be further developed in young Greek art. They will manifest themselves in the plans of temples, similar to the megaron, in the early appearance of monumental painting, in some subjects, compositional techniques, and ceramic technology.
Despite the differences in arrangement, the interior of the Mycenaean palaces was typically Cretan. Here, too, the walls were covered with frescoes, although the artists showed much less ingenuity and imagination than before. Mycenae was dominated by battle and hunting scenes. The frescoes told about the life of kings and the aristocracy and almost nothing about the life of ordinary people.
Craftsmen of this period made linen, potters, along with amphoras and hydrias, made terracotta baths and many other vessels. The same was the case with furniture. Stone tables of various types are mentioned: inlaid with ebony, gold and silver, and ivory. Round, with a spiral ornament, with a different number of legs and so on.
At the beginning of the XII century BC. e. the states of the Aegean world are in decline. Starting from the north new wave Greek tribes - Dorians. This wave destroys the centers of the Aegean culture for several centuries, suspending the development of realistic art.

It took several centuries before the Dorian tribes, who came from the north in the 12th century BC, by the 6th century BC. created a highly developed art. This was followed by three periods in the history of Greek art:

1) the archaic, or ancient period, from about 600 to 480 BC, when the Greeks repelled the Persian invasion and, having freed their land from the threat of conquest, they again got the opportunity to create freely and calmly;

2) the classics, or the heyday, from 480 to 323 BC. - the year of the death of Alexander the Great, who conquered vast areas, very dissimilar in their cultures; this diversity of cultures was one of the reasons for the decline of classical Greek art;

3) Hellenism, or late period; it ended in 30 BC when the Romans conquered Greek-influenced Egypt.

Greek culture spread far beyond its homeland - to Asia Minor and Italy, to Sicily and other islands of the Mediterranean, to North Africa and other places where the Greeks founded their settlements. Greek cities were even on the northern coast of the Black Sea.

Temples were the greatest achievement of Greek building art. The oldest ruins of temples date back to the archaic era, when instead of wood, yellowish limestone and white marble began to be used as a building material. It is believed that the ancient dwelling of the Greeks served as a prototype for the temple - a rectangular structure with two columns in front of the entrance. From this simple building, various types of temples, more complex in their layout, grew over time. Usually the temple stood on a stepped base. It consisted of a room without windows, where there was a statue of a deity, the building was surrounded in one or two rows of columns. They supported the floor beams and the gable roof. In the semi-dark interior, only priests could visit the statue of God, while the people saw the temple only from the outside. Obviously, therefore, the ancient Greeks paid the main attention to the beauty and harmony of the external appearance of the temple.

The construction of the temple was subject to certain rules. Dimensions, ratios of parts and the number of columns were precisely established.

Three styles dominated Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The oldest of them was the Doric style, which had already developed in the archaic era. He was courageous, simple and powerful. It got its name from the Doric tribes that created it. Today, the surviving parts of the temples are white: the paint covering them crumbled over time. Once their friezes and cornices were painted red and blue.

The Ionic style originated in the Ionian region of Asia Minor. From here he penetrated into the Greek regions proper. Compared to the Doric, the Ionic columns are more ornate and slender. Each column has its own base - the base. The middle part of the capital resembles a pillow with corners twisted into a spiral, the so-called. volutes.

In the Hellenistic era, when architecture began to strive for greater splendor, Corinthian capitals began to be used most often. They are richly decorated with floral motifs, among which images of acanthus leaves predominate.

It so happened that time spared the oldest Doric temples, mainly outside of Greece. Several such temples have been preserved on the island of Sicily and in Southern Italy. The most famous of these is the temple of the god of the sea Poseidon at Paestum, near Naples, which looks somewhat ponderous and squat. Of the early Doric temples in Greece itself, the most interesting is the temple of the supreme god Zeus at Olympia, which is now in ruins - holy city Greeks, where the Olympic Games originate from.

The heyday of Greek architecture began in the 5th century BC. This classical era is inextricably linked with the name of the famous statesman Pericles. During his reign, grandiose construction work began in Athens, the largest cultural and artistic center of Greece. The main construction was carried out on the ancient fortified hill of the Acropolis.

A - a fragment of the Parthenon, b - clothes, c - a fragment of the capital of the Erechtheion, d - a golden comb, e - a vase, f - an armchair, g - a table.

Even from the ruins one can imagine how beautiful the Acropolis was in its time. A wide marble staircase led up the hill. To the right of it, on a dais, like a precious box, there is a small graceful temple to Nike, the goddess of victory. Through the gate with columns, the visitor got to the square, in the center of which stood the statue of the patroness of the city, the goddess of wisdom, Athena; further on was the Erechtheion, a peculiar and complex temple. His distinguishing feature- a portico protruding from the side, where the ceilings were supported not by columns, but by marble sculptures in the form of a female figure, the so-called. caryatids.

The main building of the Acropolis is the Parthenon temple dedicated to Athena. This temple - the most perfect building in the Doric style - was completed almost two and a half thousand years ago, but we know the names of its creators: their names were Iktin and Kallikrat.

Propylaea - a monumental gate with Doric columns and a wide staircase. They were built by the architect Mnesicles in 437-432 BC. But before entering these majestic marble gates, everyone involuntarily turned to the right. There, on a high pedestal of the bastion that once guarded the entrance to the acropolis, rises the temple of the goddess of victory Nike Apteros, decorated with Ionic columns. This is the work of the architect Kallikrates (second half of the 5th century BC). The temple - light, airy, extraordinarily beautiful - stood out for its whiteness against the blue background of the sky.

The goddess of victory, Nike, was portrayed as a beautiful woman with large wings: victory is fickle and flies from one opponent to another. The Athenians portrayed her as wingless so that she would not leave the city, which had so recently won a great victory over the Persians. Deprived of wings, the goddess could no longer fly and had to remain forever in Athens.

Temple of Nike stands on a ledge of a rock. It is slightly turned towards the Propylaea and plays the role of a lighthouse for the processions that go around the rock.
Immediately behind the Propylaea, Athena the Warrior proudly towered, whose spear greeted the traveler from afar and served as a beacon for sailors. The inscription on the stone pedestal read: "The Athenians dedicated from the victory over the Persians." This meant that the statue was cast from bronze weapons taken from the Persians as a result of their victories.

In the temple stood a statue of Athena, sculpted by the great sculptor Phidias; one of the two marble friezes, girdling the temple with a 160-meter ribbon, represented the festive procession of the Athenians. Phidias also took part in the creation of this magnificent relief, which depicted about three hundred human figures and two hundred horses. The Parthenon has been in ruins for about 300 years - ever since in the 17th century, during the siege of Athens by the Venetians, the Turks who ruled there set up a powder warehouse in the temple. Most of the reliefs that survived the explosion were taken to London, to the British Museum, at the beginning of the 19th century by the Englishman Lord Elgin.

At the beginning of our millennium, when Greece was ceded to Byzantium during the division of the Roman Empire, the Erechtheion was turned into a Christian church. Later, the Crusaders, who took possession of Athens, made the temple a ducal palace, and during the Turkish conquest of Athens in 1458, the harem of the commandant of the fortress was set up in the Erechtheion. During the liberation war of 1821-1827, the Greeks and Turks alternately besieged the Acropolis, bombarding its buildings, including the Erechtheion.

In 1830 (after the proclamation of Greek independence) on the site of the Erechtheion, only foundations could be found, as well as architectural decorations lying on the ground. Funds for the restoration of this temple ensemble (as well as for the restoration of many other structures of the Acropolis) were given by Heinrich Schliemann. His closest associate V.Derpfeld carefully measured and compared the ancient fragments, by the end of the 70s of the last century he was already planning to restore the Erechtheion. But this reconstruction was subjected to severe criticism, and the temple was dismantled. The building was restored anew under the guidance of the famous Greek scientist P. Kavadias in 1906 and finally restored in 1922 /

As a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great in the second half of the 4th century BC. the influence of Greek culture and art spread over vast territories. New cities sprang up; the largest centers took shape, however, outside of Greece. Such, for example, are Alexandria in Egypt and Pergamon in Asia Minor, where construction activity has gained the greatest scope. In these areas, the Ionic style was preferred; an interesting example of it was a huge tombstone of the Asia Minor king Mausolus, ranked among the seven wonders of the world.

It was a burial chamber on a high rectangular base, surrounded by a colonnade, above it rose a stone stepped pyramid, crowned with a sculptural image of a quadriga, which was controlled by Mausolus himself. After this structure, later they began to call mausoleums and other large solemn funeral structures.

, builders unknown, 421-407 BC Athens
, architects Iktin, Kallikrates, 447-432 BC Athens

In the Hellenistic era, temples were paid less attention, and squares surrounded by colonnades were built for walking, amphitheaters under open sky, libraries, various public buildings, palaces and sports facilities. Residential buildings were improved: they became two - and three-story, with large gardens. Luxury became the goal, and different styles were mixed in architecture.

Greek sculptors have given the world works that have aroused the admiration of many generations. The oldest sculptures known to us arose in the archaic era. They are somewhat primitive: their motionless posture, hands tightly pressed to the body, and a forward gaze are dictated by a narrow long stone block from which the statue was carved. One of her legs is usually pushed forward - to maintain balance. Archaeologists have found many such statues depicting naked young men and girls dressed in loose folded outfits. Their faces are often enlivened by a mysterious “archaic” smile.

In the classical era, the main business of sculptors was to create statues of gods and heroes and decorate temples with reliefs; secular images were added to this, for example, statues of statesmen or winners at the Olympic Games.

In the beliefs of the Greeks, the gods are similar to ordinary people both in their appearance and way of life. They were portrayed as people, but strong, well developed physically and with a beautiful face. Often people were depicted naked to show the beauty of a harmoniously developed body.

In the 5th century BC. the great sculptors Myron, Phidias and Poliklet, each in his own way, updated the art of sculpture and brought it closer to reality. The young naked athletes of Polykleitos, for example, his “Dorifor”, rely on only one leg, the other is freely left. In this way, it was possible to unfold the figure and create a sense of movement. But standing marble figures could not be given more expressive gestures or complex poses: the statue could lose balance, and fragile marble could break. These dangers could have been avoided if the figures were cast in bronze. The first master of complex bronze castings was Myron, the creator of the famous "Discobolus".

	Agessander (?), 120 BC Louvre, Paris	Agessander, Polydorus, Athenodorus, c.40 BC Greece, Olympia
IV century BC e., National Museum, Naples	Polykleitos, 440 BC National Museum Rome	OK. 200 BC e., National museum Naples

Many artistic achievements are associated with the glorious name of Phidias: he led the work on decorating the Parthenon with friezes and pediment groups. Magnificent are his bronze statue of Athena on the Acropolis and the 12-meter-high statue of Athena covered with gold and ivory in the Parthenon, which later disappeared without a trace. A similar fate befell the huge statue of Zeus seated on the throne, made from the same materials, for the temple at Olympia - another of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

As much as we admire the sculptures created by the Greeks in their heyday, these days they can seem a little cold. True, there is no coloring that revived them at one time; but their indifferent and similar faces are even more alien to us. Indeed, the Greek sculptors of that time did not try to express any feelings or experiences on the faces of the statues. Their goal was to show perfect bodily beauty. Therefore, we admire even those statues - and there are many of them - that have been badly damaged over the centuries: some even lost their heads.

If in the 5th century BC. lofty and serious images were created, then in the 4th century BC. artists tended to express tenderness and softness. Praxiteles gave warmth and awe of life to the smooth marble surface in his statues of naked gods and goddesses. He also found it possible to diversify the poses of the statues, creating balance with the help of appropriate supports. His Hermes, the young messenger of the gods, leans on a tree trunk.

Until now, sculptures have been designed to be viewed from the front. Lysippus made his statues so that they could be viewed from all sides - this was another innovation.

In the era of Hellenism in sculpture, the craving for pomp and exaggeration intensifies. In some works, excessive passions are shown, in others, excessive closeness to nature is noticeable. At this time, he began to diligently copy the statues of former times; thanks to copies, today we know many monuments - either irretrievably lost or not yet found. Marble sculptures that conveyed strong feelings were created in the 4th century BC. e. Scopas.

His greatest work known to us is his participation in the decoration of the mausoleum in Halicarnassus with sculptural reliefs. Among the most famous works of the Hellenistic era are the reliefs of the great altar in Pergamon depicting the legendary battle; the statue of the goddess Aphrodite found at the beginning of the last century on the island of Melos, as well as the sculptural group “Laocoon”. It depicts a Trojan priest and his sons who were strangled by snakes; physical torment and fear are conveyed by the author with ruthless credibility.

In the works of ancient writers, one can read that painting also flourished in their times, but almost nothing has been preserved from the paintings of temples and residential buildings. We also know that in painting, too, artists strove for sublime beauty.

A special place in Greek painting belongs to the paintings on vases. In the oldest vases, silhouettes of people and animals were applied with black varnish on a bare red surface. The outlines of details were scratched on them with a needle - they appeared in the form of a thin red line. But this technique was inconvenient and later they began to leave the figures red, and the gaps between them were painted over with black. So it was more convenient to draw the details - they were made on a red background with black lines.

The Balkan Peninsula became the center of ancient Greek culture. Here, as a result of invasions and movements of the Achaean, Dorian, Ionian and other tribes (who received the common name of the Hellenes), a slave-owning form of economy was formed, which strengthened various areas of the economy: handicraft, trade, agriculture.

The development of economic ties of the Hellenic world contributed to its political unification; the entrepreneurial spirit of the sailors who settled the new lands favored the spread of Greek culture, its renewal and improvement, the creation of various local schools in the same mainstream of Hellenic architecture.

As a result of the struggle of the demos (the free population of cities) against the tribal aristocracy, states are formed - policies, in the management of which all citizens take part.

The democratic form of government contributed to the development of the public life of cities, the formation of various public institutions, for which they built assembly halls and feasts, the buildings of the council of elders, etc. They were placed on the square (agora), where the most important city affairs were discussed, and trade transactions were made. The religious and political center of the city was the acropolis, located on a high hill and well fortified. Here they built temples of the most revered gods - the patrons of the city.

Religion occupied a large place in the social ideology of the ancient Greeks. The gods were close to people, they were endowed with human virtues and shortcomings in exaggerated sizes. In the myths describing the life of the gods and their adventures, everyday scenes from the life of the Greeks themselves are guessed. But at the same time, people believed in their power, made sacrifices to them and built temples in the image of their dwellings. The most significant achievements of Greek architecture are concentrated in cult architecture.

The dry subtropical climate of Greece, the mountainous terrain, high seismicity, the presence of high-quality scaffolding, limestone, marble, which are easy to process and model in stone structures, determined the "technical" prerequisites for Greek architecture.

The town-planning completion of the square was in the Hellenistic period, porticos providing shelter from the sun and rain. The post-beam construction of these elements of buildings was the main object of constructive and artistic developments of ancient Greek architecture.

Stages of development of ancient Greek architecture:

• XIII - XII centuries. BC e. – The Homeric period, vividly and colorfully described by the poems of Homer
• VII - VI centuries. BC e. - archaic period (the struggle of the slave-owning democracy against the clan nobility, the formation of cities - policies)
• 5th–4th centuries BC e. - classical period (Greek - Persian wars, the heyday of culture, the expansion of the union of policies)
• 4th century BC. - l c. AD - Hellenistic period (the creation of the empire of Alexander the Great, the spread of Greek culture and its flowering in the colonies of Asia Minor)

1 - temple in antah, 2 - prostyle, 3 - amphiprostyle, 4 - peripter, 5 - dipter, 6 - pseudodipter, 7 - tholos.

Architecture of the Homeric period. The architecture of this period continues the Cretan-Mycenaean traditions. The oldest residential buildings, built of brick - raw or rubble stone megarons, had a rounded wall opposite the entrance. With the introduction of framing, molded bricks, and hewn stone blocks of standard sizes, buildings became rectangular in plan.

Architecture of the archaic period. With the growth of cities and the formation of the policy, a slave-owning tyranny was formed, based on the support of the free population. There are various forms of public institutions: symposiums, bouleuteria, theaters, stadiums.

Along with city temples and sacred sites, pan-Hellenic sanctuaries are being built. The planning composition of the sanctuaries took into account the difficult conditions of the relief and the very nature of religious ceremonies, which were primarily cheerful holidays with solemn processions. Therefore, the temples were placed taking into account their visual perception by the participants in the processions.

The peristyle type of dwelling house is finally established in the Hellenistic regions. The isolation of the dwelling from the external environment is still preserved. Rich houses had swimming pools, lavishly decorated with paintings, mosaics, and sculptures. Cozy places for rest and fountains were arranged in the landscaped courtyard.

The Greeks built well-equipped harbors and lighthouses. History has preserved descriptions of giant lighthouses on about. Rhodes and on about. Pharos in Alexandria.

The lighthouse of Rhodes was a huge copper statue depicting Helios, the god of the Sun and the patron of the island, with a lit torch, anointing the entrance to the harbor. The statue was built by the Rhodians c. 235 BC e. in honor of their military victories. Nothing has survived from her; it is not even known how tall she was. The Greek historian Philo calls the figure "seventy cubits", that is, about 40 m.

The republican system of Rhodes contributed to the extraordinary flourishing of art. To judge the Rhodes sculptural school, it is enough to mention the world-famous work "Laocoön".

Alexandria is the capital of Hellenistic Egypt, part of the empire founded by Alexander the Great. At the end of the IV century. BC e. the largest scientific center is organized here - Museion, where prominent Greek scientists worked: mathematician Euclid (III century BC), astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (II century), doctors, writers, philosophers, artists. Under Museion, the famous Library of Alexandria was created. The city stood on the trade routes of the Greeks with Eastern countries: it had large port facilities, convenient bays.

At the northern end of Pharos, forming a protected harbor in front of the city, at the end of the 3rd century. BC. a lighthouse was built in the form of a high multi-tiered tower with a pavilion, where a bright fire was constantly maintained. According to historians, its height was 150 - 180 m.

In the era of Hellenism, Greek culture penetrated into the most remote corners of the civilized world. Cultural exchange was facilitated by the extensive conquests of Alexander the Great.

The architecture of Ancient Greece for a long time determined the direction of development of the architecture of the world. The architecture of a rare country did not use the general tectonic principles of the order systems developed by the Greeks, the details and decoration of Greek temples.

The viability of the principles of ancient Greek architecture is primarily due to its humanism, deep thoughtfulness in general and details, the utmost clarity of forms and compositions.

The Greeks brilliantly solved the problem of transitioning purely technical constructive problems of architecture to artistic ones. The unity of artistic and constructive content was brought to the heights of perfection in various order systems.

The works of Greek architecture differ surprisingly harmonious combination with natural surroundings. A great contribution has been made to the theory and practice of construction, to the formation of the environment of a residential building, to the system of engineering services for cities. The foundations of standardization and modularity in construction, developed by the architecture of subsequent eras, have been developed.

Literature

• Sokolov G.I. Acropolis in Athens. M., 1968Brunov N.I. Monuments Athenian Acropolis. Parthenon and Erechtheion. M., 1973 Acropolis. Warsaw, 1983
• History of foreign art.- M., " art", 1984
• Georgios Dontas. Acropolis and its museum.– Athens, Clio, 1996
• Bodo Harenberg. Chronicle of humanity.- M., " Big Encyclopedia", 1996
• History of world art.- BMM AO, M., 1998
• Art of the Ancient World. Encyclopedia.- M., "OLMA-PRESS", 2001
• Pausanias . Description of Hellas, I-II, M., 1938-1940.
• Pliny on Art, trans. B. V. Varneke, Odessa, 1900.
• Plutarch . Comparative biographies, vol. I-III, M., 1961 -1964.
• Blavatsky V. D. Greek sculpture, M.-L., 1939.
• Brunov N. I. Essays on the history of architecture, vol. II, Greece, M., 1935.
• Waldgauer O. F. Antique Sculpture, Ig., 1923.
• Kobylina M. M. Attic sculpture, M., 1953.
• Kolobova K. M. Ancient city Athens and its monuments, L., 1961.
• Kolpinsky Yu. D. Sculpture of ancient Hellas (album), M., 1963.
• Sokolov G. I. Ancient sculpture, part I, Greece (album), M., 1961.
• Farmakovsky B. V. The artistic ideal of democratic Athens, Pg., 1918.

Culture of Ancient Greece

Propylaea of ​​the Athenian Acropolis. Ancient Greece (437-432 BC)

Propylaea of ​​the Athenian Acropolis, architect Mnesicles (437-432 BC), Ancient Greece.

When unexpected wealth fell on the Athenians in 454 - the treasury of the Delian Union directed against Persia was transported to Athens, Pericles decided to create on the site of what was destroyed by the Persians in 480-479 BC. the Athenian Acropolis, a new architectural complex - the greatest "wonder of the world", a new all-Hellenistic sanctuary, designed to strengthen the leading place of Athens in the Greek world. The use of huge funds from the treasury of the union, the involvement of the best craftsmen and architects ensured the birth of one of the most perfect ensembles in world art. Grandiose construction began under the general guidance of the sculptor Phidias. Instead of a simple archaic entrance to the Acropolis, a monumental, solemn gate appears - the Propylaea - with Doric porticos at different levels and a wide staircase, an inclined corridor, inside framed by an Ionic colonnade supporting the vaults of a marble ceiling, where, according to a traveler of the 2nd century AD. Pausanias, golden stars twinkled in the blue sky.

The Propylaea occupied the entire western part of the hill and consisted of a central building and two unequal side wings. The right wing was crowned by a small graceful temple with Ionic columns, built by the architect Kallikrates in honor of the goddess of victory - Niki Apteros (Wingless, so that Victory could not fly away from Athens), decorated with a low bas-relief on the theme of the Greco-Persian wars. However, it's time to cross the magical threshold of the Propylaea to get to know the world of the Acropolis better.

The Parthenon is the temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). Ancient Greece (432 BC)

Parthenon - Temple of Athena Parthenos(Athena of the Virgin), Ancient Greece is the main building of the Athenian Acropolis, both in its significance and in size.

Once it towered over the entire Acropolis, just as Athens towered over the rest of the states of Greece, being the embodiment of the glory and power of the Athenian state. This temple was built of Pentelian marble in 447-438 by the architects Iktin and Kallikrates. The sculptural decoration was created by 432 BC. famous sculptor Phidias and his students. The temple is a Doric peripter measuring 30.89 x 69.54 m with 8x17 columns. The noble beauty and harmony of proportions, the amazing plasticity and proportionality of all its forms give rise to a feeling of elation and grandeur. The main decoration of the inner space of the temple was the world-famous chrysoelephantine statue (made of gold and ivory) of Athena Parthenos, about 12 m high, created by the sculptor Phidias in 438 BC.

Together with Greece, the Parthenon has survived all stages of its history. It was also the Christian church of Hagia Sophia and the Turkish mosque. It was almost completely destroyed by war in the 17th century. And at the beginning of the 19th century, it lost all the surviving sculptures and reliefs, now scattered throughout all European museums. But even today, the Parthenon is rightfully considered one of the greatest examples of ancient architecture, a masterpiece of world art and plastics.

Discus thrower. Ancient Greece (middle of the 5th century BC)

Disco Thrower - a type of antique statue of an athlete throwing a discus, widespread in ancient Greece. The most famous of the statues of the sculptor Myron from Eleuthera in Attica. It is known that Myron lived and worked in Athens and received the title of an Athenian citizen; which was considered a great honor. As Pliny writes, Myron studied with Agelad, an excellent master who worked in Argos, whose students were also Poliklet and Phidias. The statue was created by him in the middle of the 5th century. BC. during the transition from the "strict style" to the classical. The original in bronze has been lost, but 15 repetitions of the Roman time in marble have survived, which testifies to the glory of this work. The best repetition is a statue of the 2nd century AD. from the Palazzo Lancelotti, now in National Museum in Rome. There is also a beautiful torso of the "Discobolus", a cast from which served as the basis for a successful reconstruction of this famous work. “In Discobolus, Myron takes us to the world of action, where the movement suddenly took on a supreme role, where a person knows the intoxication of power, restrained by balance. In this sense, Miron is the founder of the art of sculpture, just like his contemporary Aeschylus is the creator of dramatic action. Both explored the limits of human power,” as A. Bonnard noted in his work “Greek Civilization”.

Although the Roman copies of the Discobolus are quite good, the plastic language of Myron himself is lost in them, since a different material is used, there is no sense of freedom and flexibility of forms, some stiffness of the whole image is felt, in which all the tension of the athlete’s energy is lost. However, the works of unknown masters close to him in time, still possessing that living plasticity, inspired by the motive of Myron, have been preserved.

Apollo Belvedere. Ancient Greece (4th century BC)

Apollo Belvedere - an antique statue depicting the god Apollo in the form of a young beautiful young man shooting from a bow. It was made of bronze during the late classic period, in the middle of the 4th century BC. the ancient Greek sculptor Leohar. The statue has not survived, but its Roman counterpart in marble was found in Italy between 1484 and 1492 at Andio near Rome. During the reign of Pope Julius II, in 1506, a statue of Apollo was installed in the antiques gallery in the Belvedere Garden in the Vatican. Hence its name.

The tree trunk for the support of Apollo's right hand was absent in the bronze original, it was supplemented in a marble repetition by a copyist. However, the statue was found with broken arms. In the 1550s, the Italian sculptor G. Montorsoli, a student of Michelangelo, completed both hands.

God Apollo is plastically perfect; the cloak thrown over the shoulder does not hide a single muscle of the torso. But in the image of God - outwardly very spectacular - there is no inner significance. Over the years, the fame of the statue grew, and Apollo Belvedere became a symbol of harmony and beauty. But according to the plot, he just launched his deadly arrow, which even the almighty Zeus cannot stop, and now he is watching how it pierces the victim. Apollo is not at all one of those deities who are distinguished by mercy, on the contrary, he is cold and heartless.

Nike of Samothrace. Ancient Greece (c. 190 BC)

Nike of Samothrace(c. 190 BC) - the famous statue of the Greek goddess Nike, carved from marble by an unknown master. The right wing of the statue is lost and is a plaster reconstruction. The statue's head and arms are missing. The height is 3 meters 28 centimeters.

In 1863, on the island of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea, the Nike sculpture was found by Charles Champoiseau, a French consul and archaeologist. Carved from golden Parian marble, a statue on the island crowned the altar of sea deities. Researchers believe that an unknown sculptor created Nike as a sign of the Greek naval victories of the Rhodians over King Antiochus III in 190 BC.

The silhouette of the goddess, meeting the sea wind on the bow of the ship, is full of swiftness. She is conveyed by fluttering folds of clothing. The figure, barely hidden by the folds of the adjacent outfit, is perfect. Nike from Samothrace immediately became an icon and symbol of art. This is definitely one of the peaks of creative life and one of the most famous images. Sculptors and architects turn to the image of the flying goddess, goblets and emblems are cast in her form. The statue of Nike of Samothrace, depicting the goddess of victory, shows that not only gods can be immortal.

Repeatedly made and attempts to restore the original position of the hands of the goddess. It is assumed that the right hand, raised up, held a goblet, wreath or bugle. A brush made of the same marble was found in Samothrace in 1950 and is now on display in the Louvre, just behind the statue of Nike. The statue itself is installed at the turn of the Daru stairs, which effectively emphasizes its swiftness and impulse. The right wing of the statue is a reconstruction, an exact copy of the left wing made of plaster. Multiple attempts to restore the hands of the statue were unsuccessful - they all spoiled the masterpiece. These failures force us to admit: Nika is beautiful just like that, perfect in her imperfection.

Venus (Aphrodite) de Milo. Ancient Greece (130-100 BC)

Venus (Aphrodite) de Milo - the famous ancient Greek statue of the late Hellenistic period (c. 130-100 BC). Marble original, not a copy, as previously thought. The statue was found by a Greek peasant in his field in 1820 in two large fragments and many small fragments on the island of Milos (in ancient times Melos) in the Aegean Sea. According to an eyewitness, the French navigator Dumont d'Urville, who saw the statue when it was still standing in a peasant's barn, she held an apple in her left hand raised upwards, and with her right she held a falling robe. Durville told about the find to the French ambassador in Istanbul, the Marquis de Riviere, who, having received the statue in March 1821, presented it to King Louis XVIII. So the statue ended up in Paris, in the Louvre, where it is exhibited to this day.

The statue's hands have never been found. The author of this remarkable masterpiece is Alexander or Agesander of Antioch. Several lost letters from the author's signature on the plinth make it impossible to establish his name with certain accuracy. The master made the statue, probably in imitation of more ancient, classical samples. Stylistically, the statue belongs to the current of Hellenistic art, reflecting a return to the Greek classics of the Age of Pericles. The statue successfully combines the majestic monumentality of classical samples with the dynamic composition characteristic of Hellenism, although the art of the 2nd century BC, when the statue of Venus was created, is marked by crisis tendencies, the loss of a sense of integrity, nevertheless, it is this work, due to its sensuality and naturalism, has become over time the most famous, beloved, universally recognized symbol of beauty throughout the world.

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Ancient Greece is rightly considered the cradle of modern European civilization. This state had a noticeable impact on the development of many areas of human life - science, medicine, politics, art and philosophy. Some monuments of ancient Greece have survived to this day. It is about them, as well as about the history of the once great power that will be discussed in this article.

Ancient Greece and its historical significance

Under Ancient Greece, historians understand the totality of civilizations that existed for about 3000 years: from the third millennium BC to the 1st century AD. The very concept of "Ancient Greece" on the territory of the modern state is not used. In this country, this civilizational formation is called Hellas, and its inhabitants are called Hellenes.

The description of Ancient Greece should begin with its significance and role in the historical development of the entire Western civilization. So, historians rightly believe that it was in Ancient Greece that the foundation of European democracy, philosophy, architecture and art was laid. The ancient Greek state was conquered by Rome, but at the same time the Roman Empire borrowed the main features of ancient Greek culture.

The real exploits of Ancient Greece are not world-famous beautiful myths, but discoveries in science and culture, philosophy and poetry, medicine and architecture. It is worth noting that geographically the territory of Ancient Greece does not coincide with the borders of the modern state. Under this term, historians often mean the expanses of other countries and regions: Turkey, Cyprus, the Crimea and even the Caucasus. Monuments of Ancient Greece have been preserved in all these territories. In addition, the ancient Greek settlements (colonies) at one time were scattered along the shores of the Mediterranean, Black and Azov Seas.

Geography and map of Ancient Greece

Hellas was not a single, monolithic state entity. On its foundation, more than a dozen separate city-states were formed (the most famous of them are Athens, Sparta, Piraeus, Samos, Corinth). All the states of Ancient Greece were the so-called "polises" (in other words, cities), with lands adjacent to them. Each of them had its own laws.

The central core of Ancient Hellas is, rather, its southern part, the western tip of Asia Minor, as well as many islands located in this region. Ancient Greece consisted of three parts: Northern Greece, Central Greece and the Peloponnese. In the north, the state bordered on Macedonia and Illyria.

Ancient Greece is presented below.

Cities in Ancient Greece (polises)

What were cities like in ancient Greece?

It cannot be said that they had a chic and luxurious look, as they often like to illustrate in pictures. Actually, it's a myth. Only the main public buildings looked chic and pompous in the ancient Greek policies, but the houses of ordinary citizens were very modest.

The dwellings of the people were deprived of any comfort. Historians suggest that they even slept on the street, under the porticos. The network of city streets was careless and ill-conceived: most of them did not get the sun's rays at all.

Things were worst in Athens, which many travelers of that time spoke of with contempt. Nevertheless, comfort eventually penetrated into the homes of ordinary Greeks. So, a real revolution in urban planning and street planning at that time was made by the architect Hippodames of Miletus. It was he who first drew attention to the location of houses in the city and tried to build them in one line.

Architectural sights of Ancient Greece

Now it is worth dwelling on another important question: what did Ancient Hellas leave us, if we talk about material monuments?

The sights of Ancient Greece - temples, amphitheaters, the remains of public buildings - have been preserved in many European countries. But most of all, of course, it is on the territory of the modern state of the same name.

Ancient Greek temples are the most important monuments of ancient material culture. In Hellas, they were built everywhere, because it was believed that the gods themselves lived in them. These world-famous sights of ancient Greece stand out from the rest architectural monuments Ancient Hellas - the remains of the Greek acropolises and other ancient ruins.

Parthenon

Perhaps the most famous monument Ancient Greek architecture is the Parthenon temple. It was built in 432 BC in Athens, and today is the most recognizable tourist symbol of modern Greece. It is known that the construction of this majestic Doric temple was led by the architects Kallikrat and Iktin, and it was built in honor of the goddess Athena, the patroness of the Athenian Acropolis.

Until our time, the central part of the Parthenon with fifty columns has been quite well preserved. In the center of the temple you can see a copy of the sculpture of Athena, made at one time from ivory and gold by Phidias, the most famous ancient Greek artist and sculptor.

The frieze of the central facade of the building is generously decorated with various images, and the pediments of the temple are decorated with wonderful sculptural compositions.

Temple of Hera

The oldest temple in ancient Greece is the temple of the goddess Hera. Experts say that it was built in the sixth century BC. Unfortunately, the structure is not as well preserved as the Parthenon: at the beginning of the fourth century, it was badly damaged by an earthquake.

The Temple of Hera is located in Olympia. According to legend, the inhabitants of Elis gave it to the Olympians. The foundation, steps, as well as several surviving columns - this is all that remains of grand structure to date. One can only imagine how it looked in those ancient times.

At one time, the temple of Hera was decorated with a statue of Hermes. Today the sculpture is kept in the archaeological museum of Olympia. It is known that the ancient Romans used it as a sanctuary. Today, this place is famous primarily for the fact that the Olympic flame is lit here on the eve of the next Olympics.

Temple of Poseidon

The Temple of Poseidon, or rather its remains, are located on It was built in 455 BC. Only 15 columns have survived to this day, but they speak eloquently of the majesty of this structure. Scientists have established that on the site of this temple, long before the start of construction, there were already other places of worship. They are roughly dated to the 7th century BC.

Everyone knows that the god Poseidon in ancient Greek mythology is the ruler of the seas and oceans. Therefore, it was not by chance that the ancient Greeks chose a place for the construction of this temple: on the sheer shore of the Aegean Sea. By the way, it was at this place that King Aegeus threw himself off a steep cliff when he saw in the distance the ship of his offspring Theseus with a black sail.

Finally...

This is a real phenomenon in the history of European civilization, which had a huge impact on the development of European culture, science, art and architecture. The sights of Ancient Greece are numerous majestic temples, the remains of acropolises and picturesque ruins which have survived in large numbers to this day. Today they attract great amount tourists from all over the world.