Water (river) transport is a transport that transports passengers and goods by ships along waterways of both natural origin (rivers, lakes) and artificial (reservoirs, canals). Its main advantage is its low cost, due to which it occupies an important place in the federal transport system countries, despite seasonality and low speed.

Advantages and disadvantages

The river transport of Russia plays an important role in the inter-regional and intra-regional transportation of our country. Its advantages lie in the paths of natural origin, for the arrangement of which a smaller amount of costs is used than for the construction of railways and highways. The cost of freight transportation by waterways is lower than by rail. And labor productivity is 35 percent higher.

However, river transportation has a number of disadvantages - seasonal nature, low speed of movement, limited use, which is due to the configuration of the water network. In addition, the major arteries of our country flow from north to south and from south to north, and the main cargo flows have a latitudinal direction.

Main highways

Thanks to the construction of cascades of hydroelectric facilities, the Volga and Kama rivers have turned into deep-water highways. Inter-basin connections Moscow-Volzhskoe and Volzhskoe today constitute the Unified deep-water system, the total length of which is 6.3 thousand kilometers. With the steady growth of inland water transportation in the eastern part of Russia, the leading position is still held by the Volga-Kama basin. Its rivers account for more than fifty percent of the transport of passengers and goods. The main place in this basin was occupied by the transportation of building materials by river transport (60 percent). Their transportation is carried out in both directions, it is predominantly intra-district.

And what is transported along the waterways of Russia?

River transport on these arteries mainly delivers timber, both on ships and in the old fashioned way, on rafts, by rafting. Siberian forest is transported from the Kama to the Volga, and along the Volga-Baltic route - the forest of the Vologda and Arkhangelsk regions, Karelia for the regions North Caucasus and the Volga region. The river transport of Moscow is involved in the transportation of timber along the canal of the same name to the Moscow region and Moscow. Through the ports of Volga and Kama, Kuznetsk coal is transported to the basin, and then it is transported along waterways to power plants. In addition, a prominent place is occupied by the delivery of salt - from the Baskunchan salt mine up the Volga to the ports of the Volga region, the Urals, the Center, to the North-Western enterprises and for export. In addition, agricultural products from the Volgograd and Astrakhan regions, fish from the Caspian Sea, as well as chemical products from the Volga region and the Urals are sent up the Volga. Oil products and oil, grain cargoes are transported in both directions.

Main directions

The river transport of Russia is especially developed in the Volga-Kama basins, because the Kama with its tributaries - the Vyatka and the Belaya - is of great importance in the connections of the Urals with the North-West, the Center, the Volga region. Mainly grain, timber, oil, chemical cargoes, construction mineral materials are transported down the Kama. Coal, cement, timber are transported in the opposite direction. In the upper reaches of the Kama, the traffic is much less. In addition, the Volga-Don Canal contributed to an increase in bulk cargo transportation along the Volga. Thanks to him, from the areas adjacent to the Don, grain, coal, melons, industrial products and other goods are transported along the Volga. In the opposite direction - cement, ore, timber, chemical products. All this carries river transport. Samara, like other cities in the Middle Volga region, is the main consumer of these goods. An important role in the development of transportation is played by the water transport links of this basin with the North-Western region, as well as with foreign states of the Baltic Sea through the Volga-Baltic route. Apatite concentrate, ore, building materials, timber are transported through it in the south direction, and chemical cargoes, grain, coal and oil products are transported to the north.

Passenger Transportation

The main passenger flows are also concentrated in the Volga-Kama basin. Any river station will offer citizens a variety of local, transit, intracity and suburban destinations. Passenger ships quite widely used in the organization of tourism or recreation. The longest are transit lines from Moscow to Astrakhan, Perm, Rostov and Ufa. The largest river station is located in the capital of Russia. In the Volga-Vyatka basin, the largest river ports are Nizhny Novgorod, Volgograd, Moscow, Perm, Astrakhan, Kazan, Yaroslavl.

northwest direction

Rivers have served as the central transport communications of the North-Western and Northern economic regions since ancient times. In its European part, the main water arteries for the transportation of goods are the Northern Dvina with its tributaries Sukhona and Vychegda, Pechora, Mezen, and in the North-West - Svir, Neva and the White Sea-Baltic Canal. A powerful flow of mineral construction and oil materials, timber, as well as grain and coal passes through the northern waterways. The main ports are Naryan-Mar, Pechora, Mezen, Arkhangelsk, Kotlas.

The North-Western basin ensures the delivery of forests to the south and from Karelia, apatite concentrate from the Kola Peninsula. In the opposite direction - manufactured goods, grain, salt and oil products. Transshipment points for various goods are Volkhov, Petrozavodsk and St. Petersburg. From here, permanent passenger lines are organized to Moscow and the Verkhnevolzhsky district. Local routes are also well developed here, this became especially noticeable with the increase in the number of high-speed ships.

East direction

In the east of Russia, the Ob-Irtysh basin of Western Siberia occupies the first place in terms of transportation. River transport here contributed to the development of gas and oil resources, as well as forest areas. From the main transport hubs (Tobolsk, along the Irtysh and the Ob) coal, drilling equipment and pipes, building materials, food and industrial goods are delivered to the oil and gas fields of the Tyumen region. Delivery of goods to the deep regions of the mainland is carried out along the Northern Sea Route with subsequent transshipment at the mouths of the Taz, Pur and Ob on river boats. Most of the traffic is timber, which comes in rafts to the river port of Asino. Then it is transported on ships to Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk. More than a quarter of deliveries along the Irtysh and Ob are construction materials that come from the southern regions to the north, to the areas of the oil and gas industry. In addition, river transport is of great importance in the transportation of grain cargo, salt, coal and oil products.

On the Ob, along with the ancient ports of Barnaul and Novosibirsk, an important role is played by the ports that arose in connection with the creation of industrial centers - Surgut, Ob, Labytnangi, Salekhard.

Yenisei and Angara

The river transport of the Yenisei connects the southern part of Eastern Siberia with the regions of the Arctic. Here, timber transportation reaches two thirds of the entire cargo turnover of the Yenisei. In addition, grain, oil products, coal and mineral building materials are transported along the river. The Upper Yenisei, from Minusinsk to Krasnoyarsk, is characterized by the predominance of downstream cargo flow, the main place in it is occupied by grain.

The mouth of the Angara: the main part of the forest comes from here, it divides the flow of goods on the Yenisei. The main part goes up, and from the mouth to Dikson - down the river. In addition to timber, transportation of building mineral materials and coal occupies a significant position. The main ports are Krasnoyarsk, Yeniseysk, Dudinka, Igarka, and on the Angara - Makaryevo, Bratsk, Irkutsk, Ust-Ilimsk.

Lena and Cupid

On the Lena, navigation starts from the port of Osetrovo and proceeds to the river delta. Here, in addition to domestic goods, goods are delivered that come from railway- from the bay of Tiksi and Osetrovo. Two-thirds of the shipments are coal and building materials, the rest is timber and oil. Most of them go from top to bottom. Cargo operations are carried out in the ports of Kirensk, Osetrovo, Yakutsk, Vitim.

On the Far East Amur and its tributaries Bureya and Zeya are of great transport importance. The main cargoes are grain, salt, metal, coal, timber, oil and fish. Major ports- Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk. In these areas, due to insufficient developed infrastructure land communications river transport is also important in the transportation of passengers.

Sea transport

The main significance of maritime transport lies in the fact that it provides a very significant part of Russia's foreign trade. Cabotage is essential only for supplying the eastern and northern coasts of the country. Cargo turnover for maritime transport is eight percent. This is achieved as a result of the longest transportation distance - approximately 4.5 thousand kilometers. Passenger transportation by maritime transport is negligible.

Problems of maritime transport in Russia

On a global scale, maritime transport ranks first in terms of cargo turnover, standing out with the lowest cost of cargo delivery. AT Russian Federation it is relatively poorly developed, this is due to the fact that the main economic centers of our country are far from seaports. In addition, most of the seas that surround the territory of Russia are freezing. This significantly increases the cost of using this. Another problem is the very outdated fleet of our country. Thus, the sea and river transport of Russia was built more than twenty years ago, which is unacceptable by world standards, such ships should be decommissioned. In the domestic fleet there are practically no modern types ships: lighter carriers, container carriers, gas carriers, ro-ro ships and others. Before the annexation of Crimea, Russia had only eleven major seaports, which is not enough for such a large country. As a result, about half of the cargo going by sea was served by foreign ports. These are mainly former Soviet republics: Ukraine (Odessa), Estonia (Tallinn), Lithuania (Klaipeda). The use of maritime transport shipping hubs of other states also contributes to large financial losses. While the situation with the Black Sea ports has been more or less resolved, a new port is being built on the coast of the Baltic Sea.

Water transport is used to transport people, as well as cargo that does not spoil quickly. Despite the rather high historical importance of shipping, they have long lost their own weight due to the increase in commercial aviation traffic, although to this day water transport is used for transportation and cruise trips. Modern water transport, of course, is much slower than air transport, but it is much more efficient if a large amount of cargo is to be transported. The weight of cargo transported by sea in 2010 is about six billion tons. Racing across the sea water transport absolutely any type, as well as scientific travel. In addition, the cost of traveling by water is much cheaper compared to traveling by air.

- barges are flat ships that are designed to carry large and heavy loads mainly along canals and rivers. For the most part, the barge cannot move independently, and therefore it needs a tug. Even at the beginning of the industrial revolution, barges were transported with the help of people or special animals used along with by rail. After some time, the barges left the race due to the laboriousness, as well as the high cost of transportation.

Docks, ports, shipyards and piers are distinguished in the infrastructure serving water transport. In ports, ships are loaded and unloaded, technical inspection of water transport is carried out in the dock, and repair of watercraft takes place there.

Often, when the task of transporting goods arises, it is followed by the task of choosing the type of transport for transportation and the method of delivery. As you know, there are four main types of transport: road, rail, air, water. Each of them has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, however, this article will discuss in detail one of them - water transport.

Classification of types of transportation by water transport

Transportation of goods by water transport is a quite demanded type of service, since water transport has long established itself as a reliable and stable carrier. The fleet of cargo ships today both in Russia and around the world is quite large and continues to grow. From all water transport, three large categories of vessels are distinguished: river, sea, mixed type (river and sea at the same time).

• River vessels carry out flights along inland water lines - lakes, rivers and other bodies of water.
• Maritime vessels include all vessels capable of navigating sea areas.
• Vessels of a mixed type are universal in relation to waterways.

There is also a detailed classification of water transport groups, consider, for example, types of ships.

1. Bulker. A ship designed to carry bulk cargo.
2. Tanker. A vessel similar to a bulk carrier, with the difference that the tanker carries bulk cargo.
3. Ro-ro (from the English. Roll-roll). An offshore cargo ship that carries goods that can be rolled on board (cars and other wheeled vehicles).
4. Bulk carrier This is the most common vessel, it is designed to carry the widest range of cargo, including containers, oversized equipment, etc.
5. Container ship. As the name implies, such vessels are equipped specifically for the carriage of containers in the hold and on deck, however, other cargoes can also be transported on container ships.

Sea transportation of goods can be divided depending on the regularity of the flights.

1. Trump ships (trump shipping). These ships are needed in order to carry out irregular, occasional transportation, in the absence of a schedule. Typically, tramp shipping transports low-value piece goods. When transported by tramp ships, a contract for transportation, called a charter, is concluded between the shipper and the carrier (charterer).
2. Linear ships (linear shipping). Liner navigation is carried out according to the established schedule and established route. Liner transportation is the basis of any stable trade relationship. When carrying out liner transportation, an agreement called a bill of lading is concluded between the shipper and the carrier.

Transportation of goods by sea has the following advantages:

• Low cost of transportation. Indeed, due to the high capacity of sea cargo ships and their slow speed, the cost of transportation is quite low in relation to other modes of transport.
• Large volumes of traffic. By capacity (for sea transport to displacement) sea ​​vessels not inferior to any other vehicle.
• Almost complete absence of bandwidth restrictions.

Transportation by water transport makes it possible to deliver large consignments of goods over long distances without loss of quality. One of the most common and effective ways transportation of goods by water is sea ​​freight. Most often, they are carried out in a multimodal format, which involves the operation of several modes of transport at once.

Features of water transportation

Cargo ships are divided into types: sea, river, river-sea. The first category includes general purpose dry cargo carriers, refrigerators, container ships, ro-ro ships with folding stern, bulk carriers with sloping hold walls, tankers, timber carriers, gas carriers, and ferries. The second type includes: self-propelled cargo ships (car, ore, cement, container ships, refrigerators) and non-self-propelled barge ships.

Water transportation has distinctive features. In one cargo compartment, cargoes with different physical and chemical characteristics can be loaded and kept together for a long time. During a long cargo transportation by sea goods are subjected to additional loads caused by rocking and storm vibration, humidity and temperature fluctuations. It is possible to ensure the safety of products in such conditions only with strict adherence to the technology of loading, placement, and fastening.

Cargo operations are regulated by general and special rules, codes, guidelines for the maritime transportation of food, industrial, liquid, bulk, dangerous goods. Goods for transportation by water are accepted and delivered with an external inspection and verification of the conformity of prints and seal indices with entries in bills of lading, loading warrants.

River and shipping There are several stages in preparation. It is mandatory to analyze the characteristics of the cargo, select the optimal logistics scheme, draw up accompanying documentation, package and label, insure, and load. The safety and security of the goods, the financial costs of its delivery depend on how competently the preparatory measures are carried out.

International sea freight

Sea freight are regulated by the UN Convention, the Brussels Convention on the Unification of the Rules on Bill of Lading, the Hague-Visby Rules, and other regulatory legal acts. Containers are actively used in the delivery of products by sea. Reusable packaging allows you to transport almost all types of goods. Our company carries out delivery by container capacities in 20, 40, 45 feet.

By type, containers are divided into:

• Dry Freight Container is standard for small cargoes;
• Dry Freight Container High Cube with increased capacity;
• FlatRack Container - oversized platform;
• Open Top Container - with an awning instead of a roof for loading from above;
• Refrigerator Container - refrigerated for goods requiring temperature control;
• Tank Container - tanks for gaseous and liquid substances.

Container ships are most often used to deliver consumer goods. Their main advantage is that there is no need to reload material assets along the route of the vessel. We carry out container shipping by sea for the shipment of any consignment of goods, including prefabricated containers and large shiploads of machinery, fossil resources, metal and other cargo. Transportation consists of the following steps:

• signing an agreement with a transport company;
• preparation of transport documents;
• loading;
• delivery of material assets to the destination;
• customs clearance;
• unloading;
• delivery "to the door" of the recipient at the request of the client.

Advantages and disadvantages of sea transportation:

• the ability to transport impressive parties;
• no restrictions on dimensions and hazard classes;
• reliability and safety;
• economy.

By cons maritime transport include the impossibility of urgent delivery and dependence on weather conditions.

The list of services for water transportation

One of the key specializations of KBT LLC is the organization of multimodal sea freight transportation, which is most beneficial in the international direction. In the process of fulfilling such orders, several modes of transport are used at once, which makes it possible to carry out delivery in the “door to door” format. In case of mixed transportation, export from seaports containers 20 (TEU), 40 and 45 (FEU) feet to any place in Russia. To send large cargo lots from 1000 tons, various types of ships are involved: sea, river, river-sea. Cargo owners can order not only transportation by container ships, but also by partially or fully chartered vessels. The list of services also includes:

• customer consultation;
• loading and unloading, stevedore works;
• survey work;
• collection, storage in warehouses;
• consolidation of goods at temporary storage warehouses (temporary storage warehouses);
• registration of commodity transport, customs documentation;
• insurance;
• cargo tracking on the way;
• delivery of goods in the "door to door" format.
• remote release of goods located directly in dry ports, for example, Novorossiysk and Vladivostok, through the Zelenograd (Mozhaisk) electronic declaration center.

TLT or "Dry Port" is a terminal that is directly connected to the road and rail traffic. It allows you to quickly organize all the necessary activities for further transportation and customs clearance of products.

Customs broker "KBT" has partnerships with major ports and shipping structures, which allows you to plan international shipping most efficiently, delivering goods of any type in the shortest possible time. Freight cost calculated individually depending on the type, volume of goods and distance. A flexible system of discounts applies to ordering a complex service for delivery and customs clearance.

3. HISTORY OF WATER TRANSPORT

Water transport is a type of transport that transports passengers and goods along rivers, lakes, canals, along sea coasts, as well as in transoceanic flights. That is, it is a transport using natural and artificial reservoirs. Main vehicle is a ship.

In modern terms, water transport is an industrial and technological complex that includes a fleet, waterways, ports and ship repair enterprises.

According to the type of water areas used, water transport is divided into river and nautical. Seagoing vessels must be seaworthy, that is, the ability not to collapse or sink in waves. Sea vessels, as a rule, are larger than river ones. Transportation on lakes is usually referred to as river transport (with the exception of the largest lakes, such as the Caspian Sea). Although now these differences are being erased, as the rivermen are widely introducing vessels of mixed "river-sea" navigation. Such ships may go out to sea through the mouths of rivers, sail on it to the ports located on it, or enter the mouths of other rivers.

Ports (sea and river) serve for loading and unloading cargoes, sea and river stations are built for passengers.

The main advantage of water transport is low energy consumption, which is 6 times less than when transported by rail and 25 times less than when transported by road. An illustrative example was given by the famous French engineer J.E. Lambardy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries:

“Five boatmen can carry at a certain time along the canal such a burden that at the same time and the same distance would require 83 horses and 21 guides with them. But since a part of the land sown to feed one horse can feed 8 people, therefore, without taking into account other costs, the ratio of costs for transportation by water and by land will be as 1:137.

Among other things, water transport is vital where land transportation is impossible: between continents, islands, and in underdeveloped areas. Ferries are an important type of water transport.

The speed of movement on water transport is relatively low, but it has a high throughput and a very low cost of transportation; in addition, it allows you to transport almost any bulky cargo.

The high capacity of water transport can be illustrated by such an example. Let it be necessary to deliver a cargo weighing 5,000 tons from one point to another, and this can be done by water and by land, while the waterway has a length of 500 km, and highway- 300 km. To deliver this cargo by water transport, one Volgo-Don cargo ship will be required, on which the cargo will be delivered in one day by one flight. For delivery by road, 500 trips of the KamAZ-53212 car will be required. Its speed is 3 - 4 times higher than the speed of the ship, so the first batch of cargo weighing 10 tons will be delivered to the final destination in 4 - 5 hours, that is, 20 hours faster than by water. But if there is one car available, then with two trips per day (1200 km), which exceeds the current standards, the entire cargo will be transported in 250 days, if there are 2 cars - in 125 days, 10 cars - in 25 days, etc., that is, much slower than by water transport. Therefore, bulk cargo (large consignments of raw materials, such as coal or oil, ore or grain) is delivered by water faster than other modes of transport. And although at present water transport is almost never used for business passenger transportation (due to low speeds), it is very popular with tourists and amateurs in general. active rest. Used and large tourist ships, and a variety of boats, yachts and boats.

The paths along rivers and lakes greatly facilitated the exploration and development of almost all continents, and to this day they continue to serve both for travel and for commercial purposes. Although navigation requirements vary from country to country, a minimum depth of 1.2m is generally required to allow ships to pass.

Another disadvantage of water transport is the seasonality of its work. In addition, often the path along the river is not the shortest, the rivers are often winding.

Most of the ships are designed in accordance with the requirements of navigation (mode of navigation) and for a certain type of cargo. Some riverboats are intended for passengers only, more ships are used for the transport of passengers and cargo (cargo-passenger), but the bulk of the ships are specialized in the transport of goods. There are four main types of ships:

1) cargo ships (dry cargo, tankers, combined, etc.) that carry out individual orders or operate on regular routes;

2) cargo-passenger ships;

3) high-speed passenger liners with two or three classes for passengers, as well as post and luggage compartments;

4) a small number of comfortable high-speed vessels designed only for passengers and mail.

Some more features and advantages of water transport. The weight of the rolling stock (tare) moved along with the cargo is 10–20% of the carrying capacity on inland waterways, and on railways it reaches 30% or more. The unit cost of rolling stock (that is, the cost per 1 ton of cargo) in water transport is 2-3 times less than in rail transport. Water transport, subject to environmental and sanitary rules, has a minimal negative impact on the environment.

AT depending on the mode of navigation water basins are divided into:

basins with a maritime regime of navigation, where the International Rules for the Prevention of Collisions at Sea are in force;

pools with an internal navigation regime, where the Rules for navigation on inland waterways apply;

non-navigable pools.

Depending on the remoteness of ports (shelters) and hydrometeorological conditionswater basins are divided into:

• coastal;

  inland water basins.

Depending on the method of occurrence, waterways are divided into natural and artificial (canals and lock rivers).

The total length of rivers in Russia is about 4 million km, and about 100 thousand km of them are operated, including: 73 thousand km - rivers in their natural state, 11 thousand km - lakes and 16 thousand km - artificial waterways .

Waterways in terms of their dimensions, that is, dimensions, must ensure the navigation of vessels of the largest (calculated) sizes.

ship's way(previously it was called the fairway, now this name has remained only in navigation) is the underwater and surface space on the navigable route, intended for navigation and indicated on the map or on the ground. The dimensions of the ship's passage are its depth, width, surface height, limited by structures (bridges, transmission lines), and the radius of curvature. The most important characteristic of the waterway is the guaranteed navigable depth. As a rule, other dimensions of waterways are provided much easier on both natural and artificial waterways.

Inland waterways for transport purposes are divided into superhighways, highways and local routes. Their classification is given in the table.

Guaranteed Depth is the depth that is maintained in the waterway during the entire navigation at the lowest water levels.

Story

Since ancient times, people have used natural water bodies as means of communication - rivers, lakes and coastal areas of the seas. At the same time, hydrotechnical work has long been carried out to develop water transport communications.

The emergence of transport dates back to ancient times. In the conditions of a primitive economy, when only the beginnings of a social division of labor appear, the need for transport is not great. The means of transport are primitive - trodden paths, packs, rollers for especially heavy loads, hollowed out tree trunks or canvases, and later shuttles. In the era of the slave economy, built on the exploitation of the labor of slaves, transport takes a step forward in its development. Slave-owning states waged numerous wars for the conquest of other countries, receiving tribute from them, and capturing slaves. Military needs and the needs of management required the development of transport. In China, Persia, the Roman Empire, a large number of paved roads were built for military purposes. Gradually, exchange, trade in slaves, bread, fabrics, and spices grew. City-states arose on the Mediterranean Sea: Phoenicia, Carthage and others, in which trade played an important role. Maritime navigation developed, rowing appeared, and then sailing ships.

Water transport reached a high level of development in ancient times. Sea ships in that era were already advanced enough to sail long distances. Therefore, states developed rapidly near the seas. No sea has had such a glorious fate as the Mediterranean. Many civilizations developed on its shores, reached the heights of power, glory and greatness, leaving their heritage in culture, architecture, science, etc. to their descendants.

The development of seaworthiness in ancient times can be divided into three periods:

I period - from the birth of seaworthiness to the appearance of sails. Stone Age people, who understood the importance of rivers and seas in their lives and began to extract shellfish and other marine animals available to them, eventually created the simplest means of transportation - the distant ancestors of modern river and sea ships. At the same time, people invented the first movers - first a pole, and then an oar. Seaworthiness made a big step forward after the creation in the 5th - 4th millennium BC. e. sails - the most amazing discovery that has helped sailors for more than 6 thousand years and has had a decisive influence on the development of seaworthiness.

II period - from the appearance of the sail to the first coastal voyages within the same sea basin. Improvement in shipbuilding made it possible to build ships adapted to coastal sea voyages.

III period - from coastal coastal voyages to the first long sea voyages and the arrival of science in the service of seaworthiness. In I millennium BC. e. the first distant sea voyages are carried out. Shipbuilding technology has improved significantly.

Ancient Egypt

The full-flowing Nile bursts its banks at the end of July and returns to its course only three months later. During the period of high water, the lower course of the river turned into a huge lake region and the connection between the villages located on the hills became possible only by floating means. It was impossible to live without ships. Therefore, it is natural that the inscriptions that have come down to us, left in ancient Egypt on clay tablets, on the walls of tombs, on stone steles, very often and in detail tell about everything related to voyages and ships. This is information about work at the shipyards, about building materials, about sailing routes and about battles at sea.

The population of this fertile and peculiar country increased rapidly, and very early in its midst, royal power became an expression of unity and nationality. The first among the kings mentioned by local priestly historians was Mina, who is believed to have begun to reign in 3892 BC. e. He is considered the founder of Memphis, a city that was built on the Nile, at its very exit from the valley, in the place where it branches into two branches of the delta. For thousands of years this city has been the natural capital of the country. Ten dynasties ruled one after another for a thousand years, and there is no other example in history of such a long era during which any people was given such an opportunity to develop their original way of life without any interference from outside. During the same millennium, Southern (or Upper) Egypt gradually begins to emerge from the darkness. At its head is a city built a hundred miles above Memphis on the Nile, the so-called Thebes (Uisa), which is the second known center of Egyptian life. Perhaps these two separate kingdoms, Memphis and Thebes, existed for some time side by side on their own. This can be concluded from the fact that the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, white and red, are constantly different in the images of the monuments. Subsequently, both kingdoms undoubtedly united, and a number of pharaohs continued to peacefully rule a country that could exist on its own without needing anyone.

The rapid development of civilization in Egypt was accompanied by the improvement of a wide variety of technological means, including shipbuilding. There is evidence that for trade with the Mediterranean cities, Egypt had sea ​​ships 3.5 - 2 thousand years BC e. For the transportation of large cargoes, the Egyptians created special flat-bottomed ships - barges. They achieved the necessary longitudinal strength thanks to the additional reinforcements made of longitudinal wooden beams. The Egyptians made ships from local tree species, as well as from pine, which was brought from Syria. Approximately 2.5 thousand years BC. e. The Egyptians sent entire sea expeditions to Syria. The harbors of the Red Sea received ships with a variety of goods from the eastern countries: India, China, Arabia.

Expeditions to the country of Punt (Somalia, East Africa) were well armed. Gold, stone vessels, faience products and others were exported from it. At the entrance to the port on the island of Pharos in the middle of the III century BC. e. for the first time in history, a lighthouse was created, which became one of the wonders of the world. To protect against pirates, the Egyptian pharaohs had special warships. In the III century BC. e. in Egypt, a forty-oared ship (tessarokontera) was built. He had two bows and two sterns, several rams. The ship was 280 feet long and 38 feet deep. The ship had 4,000 rowers, 3,000 crew and 400 servants. The oars were filled with lead, which facilitated the work of the rowers. The finds of archaeologists in the dead city of Saqqara gave historians a diagram of the technological process of manufacturing their ships by the Egyptians: the reliefs depicted successively different stages of construction: the hull is recruited from boards; caulk with reed and tow; the vessel is wrapped with a rope along the height of the upper cladding belt.

Here, for example, Pharaoh Ramesses III proudly tells his descendants about shipbuilding and nautical achievements in Ancient Egypt from a stone monolith: “I built large boats and ships in front of them, manned by a large crew. Moreover, the ships were loaded with Egyptian goods without number. Moreover, they themselves, numbering in the tens of thousands, were sent to the great Mu-Ked (Red) sea. They reach the country of Punt (Somalia). They are not in danger, being whole because of fear.(Obviously, in front of the great pharaoh).

Ancient Egyptian shipbuilding is usually divided into a number of periods.

I period (pre-dynastic, 5300 - 3500 BC). Papyrus rowing boats of a month-shaped profile, wide, flat-bottomed with a small draft. They were made from bundles of papyrus, which were woven into curved mats with raised ends. Papyrus ropes were used to connect papyrus into bundles and mats. The steering oar was installed in the stern. Already on these early designs, ancient shipbuilders used a rectangular sail on a mast, unfastened with rope shrouds. In the absence of sufficiently strong spar trees, bipedal goats with a short horizontal yard served as a mast, on which a narrow high sail was attached. In addition to the sail, lanceolate oars also served for movement, from 8 to 26 on each side; 2 to 5 oars were used to steer the ship on each side in the stern. Reed as a shipbuilding material began to be used in Egypt, because this country is extremely poor in forests. That is why ships made of tree trunks in the form of one-trees could not appear first on the Nile, as happened in places rich in forests. Since the main technological operation in the manufacture of a ship at that time was the binding of reed stalks and mats assembled from them, even in later times the Egyptians spoke not about building, but about tying ships. In the sailing ships of the Egyptians, the bow and stern were additionally pulled together with a rope, which created a more rigid and durable structure. On the Isthmus of Suez, the conditional geographical border between Africa and Asia, the Egyptians discovered the "Great Blackness" - a system of bitter-salty lakes, through which the lower part of the Suez Canal subsequently passed. Here, at the top of the Gulf of Suez, by the middle of the 26th century BC. e. Pharaoh Sahura built the first shipyard.

On ships destined for long-distance crossings, there were cabins woven from reeds. The team consisted of 70 people.

By the way, reed ships were built not only by the Egyptians, but also by the inhabitants of the Tigris and Euphrates river basins. There is an assumption that such ships sailed not only along the rivers, but also along the sea. In this regard, the following facts are interesting. An image of a reed vessel from the time of the Minoan civilization (III - II millennium BC) was found near the island of Crete and on one of the Argolic Islands, that is, far from navigable rivers.

In 1969, the Norwegian scientist Thor Heyerdahl made an interesting attempt to test the assumption that a sail-equipped vessel made of papyrus reed could sail not only on the Nile, but also on the high seas. This vessel, essentially a raft, 15 m long, 5 m wide and 1.5 m high, with a 10 m mast and a single straight sail, was steered by a steering oar. The initial attempt by Thor Heyerdahl and his companions to sail across the Atlantic Ocean on a papyrus ship to the Americas failed. However, the possibility of long-distance navigation received undoubted confirmation, which prompted the scientist to make a second attempt in 1970, which was crowned with complete success.

II period (the era of the dynasties of the pharaohs 3200 - 2240 BC). In Egypt, wooden shipbuilding appeared and began to develop. Externally, the wooden boat was the "sister" of its papyrus predecessor - the same "orange peel" profile, raised ends and a flat bottom. The boards were obtained by sawing the twisted trunks of acacia and fig tree. The length of these vessels is 25–30 m, the width is 3.5–4.0 m. An image of such a vessel was found in the tomb of Pharaoh Sakhur in Memphis. The design features of the ships: the keel is internal, crossbars were attached to it, and to the latter - sheathing on wooden knees. Sheathing and fastenings of connections were almost literally “sewn” with the help of ropes. For sheathing, short boards of undersized acacia were used. To strengthen the hull, a braided rope ran around the sides, and the bow and stern were connected by a central rope on the racks, which twisted like a spring with the help of transverse racks. Thus, even in those ancient times, shipbuilders found a progressive method of prestressed construction. At the same time, in the rope method of fastening, continuity in shipbuilding technology with the period of reed shipbuilding is seen. A two-legged removable mast with a high rectangular sail was placed in the middle of the ship. Six steering oars were installed on the aft platform. They rowed with short oars without oarlocks (as in modern canoes). From the bow to the stern of the boat, an internal longitudinal keel with powerful diameters, the so-called traverses, passed. Sheathing boards were attached to the traverses, which were mounted on spikes. Due to the lack of long boards and the outer keel, the ship became too fragile to be tested by sea waves, due to which its hull had to be wrapped around the entire length along the sides with a cable. To protect the hull from bending, the bow and stern were bursting with transverse beams. Between them, another cable was pulled, which rested on vertical racks with a fork.

Egyptian vessel of the Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5, 2550 BC. e. Drawing from the tomb of pharaoh Sahor, Memphis

Egyptian reed boat

The ship had a primitive quadrangular sail, with which it could only go with the wind. Due to the modest management capabilities, the Egyptians did not have special hopes for the sail, and therefore their sea vessels, like the Nile boats, remained rowing for a long time. The only collapsing two-legged mast, which, if necessary, was lowered, was held by the stays. The sail, unusually high and narrow, was attached to the yardarm. The armament of the vessel was completed by rowing oars, as well as one or more rudder oars firmly fixed in oarlocks at the stern. Putting the usual stroke on the gunwale, the Egyptians made the oar work on the principle of a lever. The ship was set in motion by much less muscular effort, which was immediately recognized as very beneficial and taken into account by the next generations of shipbuilders. It is difficult to say exactly when the full transition from rowing to oar occurred. The bas-reliefs found on Egyptian monuments depicting the first forty-oared ships refer us to 2800-2000 BC. e.

Seaworthy merchant ship of Egypt

III period ( the times of the New Kingdom, from the II millennium BC. e.). Following the example of the Phoenicians, famous for their craftsmanship, the Egyptians began to use tall coniferous trees, specially imported for this purpose from Lebanon. The beams, hewn from their long trunks, gave the ship's hull greater strength.

The profile of the vessel became noticeably sharper, the bow and stern rose even higher. The tying belt is gone forever, but, in order to avoid the longitudinal bending of the vessel, the shipbuilders still continued to pull the cable between the beams at the bow and stern. Thanks to the transverse beams, the ends of which protruded from the skin, the structure of the ship was significantly strengthened. The quadrangular sail became lower, wider and was no longer fastened on one, as before, but on two yards. The role of the rudder was played by two stern oars with wide blades, which had handles for control. The sizes of vessels have increased: length up to 30-40 m, width up to 4.0-6.5 m, displacement up to 60-80 tons. Sheathing is made of long boards, which allow for higher strength of new ships. The outer binding of the rope also disappears; preserved longitudinal rope-tie and inner keel, bow and stern beams (stem and stern); a straight sail was installed on the mast on two yards (with curved ends); a stone with a hole for a rope served as an anchor (The image of such a vessel was preserved in the temple of Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahri.).

Based on ancient Egyptian bas-reliefs, the famous Swedish scientist, fleet historian V. Lundstrem restored the appearance of an Egyptian warship of the 1200s BC. e. It had a rather elongated hull with a strong transverse framing resting on a powerful keel beam, which made it possible to abandon the longitudinal rope tie, which is so characteristic of merchant ships. The keel beam in the bow ended in a metal ram in the form of an animal's head.

Seafaring merchant ship of Egypt (1500s BC)

On the far protruding sternpost, one, but large, steering oar was attached. Additional strength was given to the hull by cans from side to side. The rowers were covered from arrows by an 80-centimeter bulwark. At the ends of the vessel, fenced platforms for archers were rigidly attached, which were also located in a wicker basket on the top of the mast. Egyptian archers, who were armed with long-range (defeat 150 - 160 m) bows, were the main striking force of the Egyptian warship. The length of such vessels ranged from 30 to 40 m.

The development of maritime trade in ancient Egypt entailed the improvement of ship designs. Bow and stern bars appeared. Spikes were made on them, which included sheathing boards. The nose overhang was reduced, the steering oars were enlarged and fixed in strong oarlocks. However, due to still insufficient longitudinal strength, the hull was pulled together with a rope on special supports. There were small platforms on the bow and stern. A mast with a straight sail and two yards bent at the ends made up the sailing armament. The anchor was a stone tied with a rope. The displacement of Egyptian ships (in 1500 BC) reached 60 - 80 tons. Larger ships were also built to transport building materials, stone blocks for pyramids, and obelisks. Small oarlock pegs were attached along the gunwales of the sides, to which short oars with spear-shaped blades were tied.

Having started building giant ships back in the time of Queen Hatshepsut (1500 BC), the ancient Egyptians became, perhaps, the first shipbuilders who were seriously “sick” with gigantomania.

The queen was actively building temples, to which huge ships were intended to help. At her behest, a transport vessel with a displacement of 1.5 thousand tons was created, which had a length of 63 m, a width of 21 m, a side height of 6 m and a draft of 2 m. - from three rows of logs stretched through the outer skin.

Ships of Hatshepsut. Drawing of a relief from the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri

The monumentality of the ship left no doubt that it would cope with an honorable mission - to transport two 350-ton granite obelisks along the Nile from the rocks of Aswan to the sacred city of Thebes. However, it was rather difficult for him to move forward: the ship was pulled in tow by boats, and only four steering oars were installed on it in the stern. The growth of the displacement and size of the ships of the ancient Egyptians was spurred on by the achievements of the Greeks - their neighbors and rivals at sea. So, according to the letters left by the contemporaries of these distant events, Egypt's response to the construction of the oar giant "Syracusian" with a displacement of 4.2 thousand tons was a huge multi-tiered vessel 128 m long at that time with 4 thousand rowers. Its width reached 17 m, the height of the bow and stern above the water was 22 m, and the displacement was 3 thousand tons. The mast had a height of about 40 m, while the length of the oars of the upper tier reached 19 m.

In 1952, the oldest Egyptian ship, about 4.5 thousand years old, was found near the pyramid of Cheops. This is the burial boat of the pharaoh.

The design of the ship's hull from the pyramid of Cheops

It was found in a disassembled state in a trench cut in limestone, apparently, to save space, it was dismantled. 650 parts were neatly stacked in 13 layers and covered with rubble. The reconstruction of this ship lasted 16 years, ended only in 1968. The crescent-shaped hull of the vessel with a displacement of 40 tons had a length of 43.4 m and a width of 5.9 m. It had only six pairs of oars 7.8 m long and only two short (6.8 m) stern oars - seemingly a typical river "punt » sewn design. However, in the grooves of the longitudinal beam-keel, beams sewn to the sides for decking were installed. The resinous boards of cedar and fig tree are well preserved. It was also possible to present the technology of construction: the boards of the outer skin were assembled end-to-end and fastened with ropes. The sealing of the longitudinal seams was carried out with slats. A longitudinal bar was attached to the transverse bottom beams with ropes. Both beams and deck boards were fastened with ropes. In the water, the hull boards swelled, the rope ties were tightened, the ship became watertight.

Rook found at the pyramid of Cheops

According to Egyptologists, the pharaoh went on his last journey on this boat. After the restoration, the remarkable find of archaeologists was put on public display in a museum specially created for this purpose, which is located near the tomb of the legendary pharaoh.

The Egyptians could not imagine without boats and ships not only real, but also the afterlife. On the tomb of a nobleman, among the most worthy deeds committed by the deceased, one of the first is: “I made a boat for those who did not have a boat” - this, obviously, according to ancient Egyptian concepts, is almost the same as saving a person’s life. So that the lord could remember his ships in the next world, numerous models of various ships were placed in the tomb of Pharaoh Akhtoy - the originals could not fit into the premises of the tomb. These miniature copies give scientists the opportunity to reconstruct various types of ships: for trade voyages, for the transport of goods, for funeral ceremonies.

Burial boat from the tomb of Amenhotep II.

Wood. Cairo. Egyptian Museum

In later times (II millennium BC), warships appeared in Egypt, in which the bow was adapted for ramming. On the wall reliefs of the temple of Medinet Habu, made by order of Ramesses III around 1190 BC. e., the battle of the Egyptian fleet with the ships of the "peoples of the sea" is depicted.

"Peoples of the Sea" were sea pirates based on the islands mediterranean sea and along the coast of southern Europe. They repeatedly attacked Egypt. Approximately 1200 BC. e. Pharaoh Ramesses III, having a fleet of 400 ships, near the city of Migdol in Libya, was able to defeat the fleet of the "peoples of the sea", in alliance with which the Libyans acted. It was the first known naval battle in history.

Naval battle with the "peoples of the sea" under Ramesses III Part of the relief from the temple of Medinet Habu

During the reign of Pharaoh Necho, Phoenician sailors hired to serve, on the orders of the lord, circled Africa on their ships. Coming out of the Red (Eritrean) Sea, they passed the Indian Ocean (South Sea), passed Gibraltar (Pillars of Melkart) and returned to Egypt. Only 2,000 years later Vasco da Gama was able to repeat this feat. By the way, the same pharaoh, an ascetic of navigation, began to restore the canal connecting the eastern branch of the Nile with the Red Sea. According to the legends of the Egyptians, it was dug by the great conqueror Sozostris, whose identity has not been established by Egyptologists. However, there is evidence that already in 1470 BC. e. the channel existed. On the wall of the temple in Thebes of Queen Hatshepsut, a relief has been preserved, which depicts the route of the expedition sent to Africa, and indicates that the fleet passed from the Nile to the Red Sea without stopping. The moving sands of the desert covered the canal bed, and it had to be restored again and again. It is known that these works were carried out during the reign of Ramesses II the Great (1317-1251 BC), and after Pharaoh Necho they were continued by the Persian king Darius, who ruled Egypt in 522-486 BC. e.

Persian king Darius

An inscription made by Darius has been preserved: “I ordered a canal to be dug from the Nile River, which flows in Egypt, to the sea, which extends to the coast of Persia. This canal was dug, as I commanded, and ships sailed through it from Egypt to Persia in fulfillment of my will. There is evidence that 120,000 slaves and Egyptian peasants died during the construction, but the work was completed. As Herodotus testifies, it was possible to sail along this channel for four days, and its width was such that two triremes could sail side by side and did not interfere with each other. Later, when the Egyptian civilization perished, the canal was filled up. new, but failed attempt Napoleon undertook to restore the canal during his Egyptian campaign in 1798. The expedition around Africa, organized by the pharaoh, was a test of strength. There is evidence of campaigns of Egyptian ships to the region of present-day Lebanon, Syria, and also to the east - to India, from where local merchants brought incense, jewelry, and spices. Clay tablets and the name of one of the first Egyptian sailors, the helmsman Un-Amun, who in the 11th century BC were preserved. e. made a transition to the Phoenician port of Byblos and left a detailed account of this. By the way, references to the numerous caste of helmsmen and the caste of interpreters allow us to conclude that voyages to neighboring countries have become commonplace.

The fleet of Ancient Egypt was, first of all, a river fleet. This is explained by the fact that the Egyptian priests considered the sea to be the habitat of evil forces. Therefore, not only to go to sea, but to catch and eat sea fish for a long time was considered a terrible sin. Maritime trade was carried out by neighboring countries - Cretans and Phoenicians. However, bold sea expeditions were already conceived by the most far-sighted pharaohs. The Egyptians wrote about the ships, they drew the ships, the models of the ships were placed in the burial chamber of the pyramid, and fairy tales were told about the ships. Among the first Egyptian literary works known to us can be called “The Tales of the Sons of Pharaoh Khufu”, and among them one of the most terrible is the tale of a shipwrecked navigator who found himself on a desert island and entered into a fight with a monster. Scholars attribute the origin of this plot to the 20th century BC. e.

The Nile River, as the main water artery, played a big role in the formation of the Egyptian state. Even the anthem of the XII dynasty era (beginning of the II millennium BC) sounded like this: “Glory to you, Nile! Glory to you, who appeared on earth, in the world, to give life to Egypt.

Thanks to the almost constant northeast winds, sailing ships rose up against the current of the Nile. Downstream the ships descended by self-rafting all the way to the Mediterranean Sea. In the Nile Delta already by 3000 BC. e. arose sea ​​port A-Ur. After the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 330 B.C. e. on the site of A-Ura was built new port and a city called Alexandria. Large papyrus ships sailed across the Mediterranean Sea, calling at the Black, Marmara, Aegean, Adriatic and other surrounding seas. As experimental navigation in 1969-1970 on the papyrus ship "Ra" by the Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl showed, the ancient Egyptians could get from Africa even to America on large papyrus ships.

Navigation in ancient Egypt took place not only along the Nile and its tributaries, but also along artificial structures - irrigation canals, which were of sufficient size for this. The network of such channels especially developed during the reign of Sesostris III (1878 - 1841 BC). The canals served not only for navigation, they accumulated water during the flood to use it for irrigation, as well as for drinking water supply. fresh water from the Nile, because the water in the wells was brackish. Under the same pharaoh, the construction of a large canal from the Nile Delta to the Red Sea (the future Suez Canal) began. Under Pharaoh Ramses II, about 70 km of the canal was built, the canal was also built under Pharaoh Neho (616-601 BC). According to Herodotus, Necho stopped construction because of an unfavorable oracle. According to some reports, the construction of the canal was completed under Pharaoh Darius I (522-486 BC). However, the ancient Greek historian and geographer Strabo (64 BC - 24 AD), in his Geography books, writes that Darius “abandoned an almost finished work, because he was convinced that the Red Sea lies above Egypt, and if you dig the whole isthmus, then Egypt will be flooded by the sea. According to other sources, the construction of the canal was completed under the pharaoh Ptolemy II. The canal was fed with water from the Nile, which had a beneficial effect on the state of the water bodies through which the canal route passed. Strabo writes: “The canal flows through the so-called Bitter Lakes, which used to be really bitter. But since the canal was dug, the composition of the water has changed from the admixture of river water; now they abound with fish and waterfowl.” Herodotus traveled along this canal and described it this way: “This canal is four days long by sea and so wide that two triremes can freely pass in it.” Elsewhere he gives the exact dimensions of the canal - a width of 70 cubits (cubit ~ 0.5 m). Then the channel fell into disrepair and was abandoned, most likely due to the shallowing of the Nile. The Roman commander Mark Antony (83 - 30 BC) arrived in Alexandria after the defeat of the Egyptian fleet and found the Egyptian queen Cleopatra at the moment when her ships were being dragged across the isthmus between the Nile and the Red Sea.

Under the emperors Trajan (53 - 117 AD) and Hadrian (76 - 138 AD), the canal was restored, expanded to 100 cubits and for a long time was called the "Trajan River". It also existed during the reign of the Arabs in Egypt. Historians of those times wrote: “Ships loaded with grain descended along this channel into the Arabian Gulf. Omar ordered to clear and deepen it.” In this form, the canal existed for another 150 years, and by order of Caliph Abu Jafar in 776, the entrance to the canal from the Red Sea was covered with soil and stones. Historians are divided on the reasons for this. Some believe that the Arabs who founded Baghdad were afraid that the canal would interfere with their successful trade. Others refer to the uprising in the city of Medina and the danger of the destruction of Egypt as an integral state.

The route of the ancient canal passed through lowlands, along which the modern Suez Canal passed in its southern part.

Suez Canal (satellite photo)

Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia

One of the oldest known hydraulic structures dating back to the middle of the III millennium BC. e., there were channels in Mesopotamia (between the Tigris and Euphrates). They formed a system that, over time, was supplemented with new links and functioned until the Arab conquests of the 7th century.

The Tigris and Euphrates were the main not only irrigation, but also the transport routes of the country: both rivers connected Mesopotamia with neighboring countries, with ancient Armenia (Urartu), Iran, Asia Minor, Syria. The need to obtain various types of missing raw materials from neighboring countries contributed to the development of a rather significant foreign trade. So, we know that the Sumerians brought copper from Elam, Iran and Assyria, and wood from mountainous areas lying to the north and east of Mesopotamia. Despite the rather wide territorial boundaries, this trade was still very primitive. It was the oldest barter trade, in which goods of one type were only exchanged for other goods. The expansion of trade in ancient Mesopotamia entailed the development of transport.

In Mesopotamia, which was cut by canals, dams served as land roads. The main royal roads to all parts of the country passed along them. Caravans pulled by donkeys, mules, oxen, and pack caravans of donkeys and camels moved along them, using packs, chariots and wagons moving with the help of very primitive disc wheels. Samples of these primitive chariots and their images were found during the excavations of the city of Ur.

But water transport has played a particularly important role in the country since ancient times, because rivers and canals are the most convenient and cheapest means of communication.

The Babylonians had various types of ships, ranging from wooden ships and boats, sailing and oared, and ending with reed fishing shuttles.

In the Eastern Desert there is a valley called the "Father of the Boat Builders" - Wadi Abu Makarat el Nes. (Wadi is the bed of ancient irrigation canals). Back in 1936-1937, stone drawings depicting Sumerian boats with highly curved bows were found here.

The most common type of typical Babylonian cargo ship was the gufa. Herodotus described it as follows: “The Babylonian ships floating on the river to Babylon are round in shape and made entirely of leather. Having cut willows in the land of the Armenians, who live higher than the Assyrians, and made the sides of the ship out of it, they then cover them with leather sheathing and make it look like a bottom, without pushing the walls of the stern and not narrowing the bow, but giving the ship the shape of a round shield. After that, the whole vessel is filled with straw, loaded and launched down the river. The cargo consists mainly of barrels of palm wine. The ship is steered with the help of two rudders by two standing men. One of them pulls the steering wheel towards him, and the other pushes away from him. These ships are made both very large and smaller; the largest of them lift five thousand talents (131 tons) of cargo. One donkey is placed in each vessel, and several in larger ones. When the sailors arrive in Babylon and sell the cargo, they also sell the skeleton of the ship and all the straw, and the skins are loaded onto donkeys and taken to the Armenians. Indeed, up the river, because of the speed of the current, these ships cannot sail at all. Arriving with donkeys back to the Armenians, the Babylonians again make ships for themselves in the same way. Such are their judgments."

In tuffs similar to those of Babylon, the inhabitants of Iraq to this day swim along the Tigris and Euphrates.

Drawings of Sumerian boats from the valley of Wadi Abu Makarat el Nes

Sacred barge of the gods. Seal impression from Varka (Sumer), III millennium BC. e.

Long before the founding of the ancient Egyptian kingdom in the middle of the desert, countless images of ships and boats were painted on the rocks, which are very similar to the Sumerian ones. They have a high prow and stern, are flat-bottomed, and are not like the boats that the Egyptians later sailed on the Nile.

Cargo ships of Babylon

Not far from Kanais, a drawing of a ship was found, on which there are 69 figures, another drawing, which shows a cabin, 50 crew members, and one of them, towering above all, points to the west towards the Nile. A relief 1.8 m long was found on the rocks depicting a ship with 70 crew members, which is pulled on ropes. This storyline is not unique. Stone drawings, in which people, depicted in the form of notches, pull ships of various sizes behind them, come across quite often.

All images are drawn along the direction of movement of these boats, dragging across the sands from the Red Sea to the Nile, on their way to the gold mines of the Eastern Desert. This is another confirmation that the Sumerians pulled ships from the coast with ropes in the direction of the Nile.

In essence, these are stories about the expedition of sailors who landed on the western coast of the Red Sea. Scientists have named them "Square Boat People".

The Sumerians built their first boats from reeds. However, the trouble was that it actively absorbs water, and the buoyancy of such a ship was low. Then, to protect the ship, its bottom and sides began to be covered with bitumen, which was abundantly provided by the deposits of northern Mesopotamia. By the way, today the boats of some Arab tribes are covered with bitumen. The discovered drawings make it possible to see heavy stones on the bow of the Sumerian ships, which were supposed to enhance the ramming qualities of the ships and did not allow to expose the bottom.

It was on such ships that the Sumerians began their journey to Egypt, starting from the Persian Gulf, rounded the Arabian Peninsula, passing along the coast of the Indian Ocean, entered the Red Sea. Their navigation to the south from Sumer was facilitated by the prevailing winds, which helped the ships to carry loads of up to 20 tons. Thor Heyerdahl built such a boat, calling it the Tigris, and proved that such vessels are capable of sea navigation.

The Sumerians, setting off on sea voyages to Egypt, made frequent stops along the route. One of the main sites was Punt, whose influence spread to both banks in the southern part of the Red Sea. Punt also owned the island of Hafun, which is part of the Bahrain archipelago. Having founded a fortification on this island, the Sumerians took control of the entire coast. It was from the islands, according to some scientists, that the people, later known as the Phoenicians, came out. They were known to the Egyptians as the "people of Fin" - the inhabitants of the Land of the Gods, or the country of Punt. An inscription found in Egypt, applied to a stone slab around 3 thousand years BC. e., testifies that forty ships filled with cedar forest arrived in Egypt from Phoenicia. Until now, the inhabitants of modern Iran use another Babylonian type of vessel - a kelek, a raft on leather skinskins inflated with air.

Phoenicia

The place of the leader in the expanses of the Mediterranean Sea since the 10th century BC. e. occupied Phoenicia. Its history is no less ancient and glorious than the history of Egypt. The settlement of the Phoenicians on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea dates back to 2000 BC. e. This people came to the Levantine coast of the Mediterranean Sea, where a narrow strip of land, enclosed by a mountain range, stretched along the sea 200 km long and 15 to 50 km wide. Today this territory is divided between Syria and Lebanon.

In some places, mountain ranges approached directly to the sea and made it difficult for land movements between the settlements that arose on the coast. It was easier for people to communicate by sea. The cedar forests that covered the slopes of the mountains were the main wealth of the country. Cedar was the best material for building ships, and the Phoenicians built them both for themselves and for sale. On their ships they also took out cedar trunks. So, for example, an inscription found in Egypt, applied to a stone slab around the 3rd millennium BC. e., testifies that forty ships filled with cedar forest arrived in Egypt from Phoenicia.

The people were inquisitive and impulsive. They adopted a lot of useful skills from the ancient Sumerians and the Cretans. And above all, they learned how to build ships with a keel and a frame from wood, learned how to navigate the Polar Star, and knew the basics of navigation. During its heyday, Phoenicia was connected with almost all parts of the world, familiar ancient world. They were guided by the information about the earth, which became the property of mankind only after 2.5 thousand years, by the time of the Great geographical discoveries.

The Phoenician helmsmen contributed to marine science by introducing a 360° division of the horizon circumference, and they also provided sailors with reliable celestial landmarks.

More important than cedar and ship-building technology to human civilization was the spread by the Phoenicians of the alphabet they are supposed to have created. Linear writing also originated in Phoenicia around 1500 BC. e. and gradually supplanted all other forms of writing. Cyrillic, Latin, Arabic and Hebrew scripts originate from the Phoenician alphabet. Historians believe that without alphabetic writing, the development of world writing, science and literature would be impossible. It was the Phoenician navigators who spread both the alphabet and linear writing throughout the ancient world.

The Phoenicians adopted the skills of building ships with a keel capable of making sea voyages from the Cretans and from the "peoples of the sea", who around 1200 BC. e. began to move from Europe, and already had the skills of shipbuilding and navigation. Over time, they became the best shipbuilders and sailors. Their sailboats and galleys, which had a keel, were reliable and beautiful. The Phoenicians were considered the best sailors of their time, and many states of the ancients often used them as mercenaries.

At the beginning of the XI century BC. e. the inhabitants of the Levant sailed on single-masted boats with a large square sail with high stems, controlled by a steering oar. The sides were connected by deck flooring, on which merchants kept their goods. At first, they sailed mainly along the rivers - Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, but then they mastered the Persian Gulf, the Red and Mediterranean Seas. They also went beyond Gibraltar, reached the British and Canary Islands, the coast of India.

36 km from the Phoenician coast lies the island of Cyprus - the first of many beautiful harbors on a convenient sea route that runs along the Mediterranean Sea.

The ancient Phoenicians, obviously, were the first among the peoples of the Mediterranean countries to go to the open sea. Sailing ships of the Phoenicians, intended for the carriage of goods, were known far beyond the borders of their homeland, were distinguished by good seaworthiness and were considered the best ships of that time. Back in the IV millennium BC. e. Phoenicia conducted maritime trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, where, in addition to general goods, timber and mast timber were exported for the construction of ships. The Phoenicians had good trade connections with the inhabitants of the Mediterranean islands.

In the middle of the II millennium BC. e. The Phoenicians established a number of colonies in the Mediterranean basin. Sailing around Africa on the orders of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho (approximately the 4th century BC) began in the Red Sea, and three years later, having overcome the spaces of the Indian and Atlantic oceans, the Phoenicians reached the Pillars of Hercules (Strait of Gibraltar) and returned to Egypt. The Phoenicians were considered in ancient times the best shipbuilders. Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century BC. e., writes that among the ships of the entire Persian fleet, "the ships set by the Phoenicians differed in the best course."

The picture above shows a Phoenician merchant ship dating back to 1500 BC. e. This is a fairly roomy vessel with powerful stems and two stern oars. Along the sides were fastened gratings of rods to protect the deck cargo. The mast carried a straight sail on two curved yards. A large amphora made of burnt clay was attached to the bow stem for storing drinking water.

Even in the era of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians called one of the types of ship "biblical ship." It is very possible that the most tribal name "Phoenicians" came from the Egyptian word "fenehu", meaning "shipbuilder". The oldest type of Phoenician ship was a heavy, but very suitable for navigation ship, sailing mainly and designed to carry significant cargo.

Creating their empire, the Phoenicians never conquered other countries, they did not use military force, but the economy. Everything they needed was achieved with the help of trade, which was carried out on their ships. They sailed not only throughout the Mediterranean, but went out into the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In the XII - IX centuries BC. e. the Phoenicians founded colonies in Northwest Africa, in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, in Sicily, in Sardinia.

Ancient chronicles characterize them as diligent and restless trading partners, excellent merchants, adventurous and stubborn. And these people actually ruled that world. The Phoenicians were the monopoly of maritime trade for many centuries. Their merchant ships reached large sizes. For example, a merchant ship from the city of Tarsus could accommodate 500-600 people. Only in 800 BC. e. The Greeks refused the services of the Phoenicians, and themselves began to transport their goods by sea. Fearing competition and trying to remain monopolists, the Phoenicians kept the routes of their voyages a secret. To intimidate competitors, they invented stories about sea horrors - about Scylla and Charybdis, about areas of the sea where the water is so thick that the ship cannot move.

The trade of Phenicia and Syria reached a high development, which is explained by the relatively high productivity of agriculture, the success of the craft and favorable geographical conditions. The Phoenician cities were at the center of the most important trade routes connecting the countries of Asia Minor with the Aegean Sea basin, with Africa and Arabia. This trade was carried out along land roads and sea routes. Caravans of merchants moved from Asia Minor, from Mesopotamia, from Arabia, from the Red Sea and from Egypt, reaching the cities of the Phoenician coast.

One of the most important seaports of Phoenicia on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea was the city of Byblos (now at this place, located 32 km from the capital of Lebanon, Beirut, the city of Jebeil is located), through which there was sea trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt and Crete. Goods were delivered to this port from the hinterland, and from here the ships of the Phoenicians sent them to different parts of the Mediterranean. These were ships of a special type, capable of transporting heavy construction timber, and they were called "Biblical". The busiest trade was with Egypt, where, in addition to cedar, Phoenicia brought resin, olive oil, metals, lapis lazuli and, possibly, slaves. Byblos was the port where the Egyptian papyrus was delivered. From the name of the city of Byblos, the Greeks began to call the papyrus scrolls "byblos", and the word "library" came from here. Delivered here and especially strong ropes of papyrus. A papyrus found in 1891 in northern Egypt tells the story of an envoy of the high priest in Thebes, dated 1080 BC. e. The messenger of the high priest Un-Amon, who was 29 days in the harbor of Byblos, counted twenty ships that went with goods to Egypt, and 50 ships that were sent to other countries. The shipping of goods by sea was dangerous and associated with the risk of being attacked by pirates. Therefore, detachments of archers were always sent on ships.

Having accumulated huge wealth from trade, the rulers of port cities acquired works of art and expensive household items in Egypt. The whole Phoenician land was considered the “land of the pharaoh”, and the rulers of the cities were his officials, but they enjoyed complete freedom in internal affairs and external relations with their neighbors. The ruler of Byblos, for example, was considered an Egyptian prince and was more of an ally of the pharaoh. Scientists believe that a chain of seaports and trading posts arose between Egypt and Byblos. During excavations in the place of El-Amarna near Cairo, about 400 clay tablets were found, on which messages were written from the city-states of Phenicia to the rulers of allied Egypt. It is believed that their number was more than 40.

But maritime trade reached a particularly high flourishing in Phoenicia. Already in the IV millennium BC. e. in the era of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians exported many goods from Phoenicia, among which olive oil and wood should be noted. Phoenician exports included wine, cedar oil, livestock, grain, cosmetics and medicines. Timber was of exceptional importance in Phoenician trade and in the entire Phoenician economy. The mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, located in the immediate vicinity of the trading Phoenician cities, as well as the mountainous regions of Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Northern and Central Syria and Palestine adjacent to Phoenicia, were covered in ancient times with large forests. The considerable forest wealth of these areas, which abounded in cedars, Cilician and Maritime pines, as well as other valuable forest species, made it possible for Phoenician traders to export timber in large quantities, especially timber and mast, to Egypt, as well as to Mesopotamia. Perfectly characterizes the need of the Egyptians for a tree, one relief from the time of Seti I, which depicts how the Lebanese princes cut cedars for the Egyptian king.

The Phoenicians exported the tree to other countries. Thus, Hiram I, king of Tyre, sent cedars to Solomon, king of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah, to build a temple in Jerusalem. In the VIII century BC. e. The Phoenicians supplied timber to Assyria for King Sargon II to build his palace. Sometimes Phoenicia paid tribute to the Assyrian kings with cedars.

Colonizing the lands of the natives, the Phoenicians did not allow foreigners there. If the local tribes were strong, then they were paid money for the right to trade, and they subjugated the weak. Zones of devastated land were created around the colonies so that the inhabitants did not communicate with their neighbors.

The warships of the Phoenicians were narrow and light ships with one row of oars, which were built from cypress wood and fastened with copper nails. Probably, the bottoms were sheathed with copper to protect against sea ​​water. There were ships with 30 oars (triaconters) and 50 oars (peteconters). They began to build ships with a pointed ram. To achieve higher speed, the Phoenicians created ships on which rowers were located in two, and then in three, and in four rows. The ratio of width and length for these vessels was 1:5 or 1:8. There were 150 - 170 people at the oars on a ship with three tiers of rowers, 30 people were the crew, and 20 soldiers were supposed to conduct a boarding battle. Shields were strengthened along the side, which the Vikings later began to do. At fair wind the speed of such a vessel was up to 7 knots (one knot is one mile per hour, and a nautical mile is 1853 m).

Phoenician warship of the 7th century BC. e.

The Phoenicians did not start a strong military fleet, but built it if necessary, therefore later they relatively easily lost their colonies to the warlike Greeks on the coast of the Archipelago and on the Black Sea. The merchant ships of the Phoenicians had a shorter hull than the combat ships.

The figure shows a warship of the 7th century BC. e. with two tiers of oars, the so-called bireme. It was the first double-decker rowboat in the world. In the biremes, the Phoenicians also fought in the service of the Egyptians, Assyrians and Persians, in particular with the Greeks.

The narrow, elongated building of the Phoenician bireme consisted, as it were, of two floors, and the upper one was given to helmsmen and soldiers. To increase the stability of the ship, the Phoenicians lowered the crinolines to the level of the main hull, placing rows of rowers there. Encased in bronze, massive, protruding like a horn, the battering ram was the main weapon of a narrow, fast bireme. Traditional detachable rigging was used in fair winds and was typical of the Mediterranean. The acrostol of the stern curved sharply, like a scorpion's tail, and the balustrade of the combat platform was covered by the shields of warriors, fortified along the sides.

The Assyrian-Phoenician warship depicted in the figure dates back to 1000 - 1500 BC. e. This is a rather narrow, strongly tailored ship, with smooth planking, powerful stems and velvets running along the perimeter of the ship. The deck for warriors is raised on racks in the form of a platform. It is closed by a bulwark, on which the shields of warriors were hung. Massive stern and bow oars significantly distinguished the ship from similar ships of that time. Their presence allowed the ship to change course 180 ° without turning around. This greatly increased maneuverability. At one time, such an arrangement of steering oars was introduced by the Kyiv prince Izyaslav on his combat deck boats. In addition, in battle, these oars were firmly fastened to the hull and played the role of rams.

The mast was removable. Two rows of oars make it possible to classify this ship as a bireme. Its length ranged from 25 to 35 m, width 4 - 5 m.

The idea of ​​the Phoenician courts is given by the reliefs on the walls of the Assyrian palaces and the remains of ships that were wrecked from the bottom.

In 1971, such a sunken ship was discovered off the coast of Sicily, the length of which was 25 m. From the inside, its sides were sheathed with lead slabs, and there was stone ballast at the bottom. The ratio of width and length was 1:3 or 1:4. Such a ship was propelled by the force of the wind. It had a mast with a large quadrangular sail, and the oars, the number of which, according to the surviving images, did not exceed ten, were arranged in two tiers, apparently, they were used when there was no wind. There were two stern oars for steering, but a small sail was used for maneuvering, mounted obliquely on a mast mounted on the bow. Cargo and crew quarters were below deck. Such vessels moved slowly, but had a carrying capacity of up to 20 tons. Usually the transition was 40 km and took place during daylight hours. In the harbor, ships were pulled ashore, for which they laid out guides from well-polished stones, poured them with olive oil, and rolled out the ship along them. The Phoenicians also created ships for sailing to distant countries, which had increased strength and dimensions up to 50 m in length. There is a description of such a ship in the book of the prophet Ezekiel: “From the Senir cypresses they made all your scaffolds; they took cedar from Lebanon to make masts on you; from the oaks of Bashan they made your oars; your pews were made of beech wood, framed with ivory from the Kittim Islands. Patterned canvases from Egypt were used for your sails and served as a flag".

During the voyages, the Phoenicians not only traded, but also mastered all the latest inventions and discoveries of neighboring countries. Being enterprising people, they made good money by selling the things they got. But the Phoenicians themselves mastered many arts and their products were valued in many countries.

In the city of Tire, which was the largest port of Phenicia, a dry dock was arranged for the repair of ships. There were also numerous shipyards. The king of Tyre built a whole fleet for Solomon, which was in the Red Sea. This fleet belonged to Israel, but all the sailors on the ships were Phoenicians. It was on these ships that a trip was made to the mysterious country of Ophir. Here is what the Bible says about this campaign: “And Hiram sent on the ship his subjects shipmen, who know the sea, with the subjects of Solomon; And they went to Ophir, and took from there four hundred and twenty talents of gold, and brought it to King Solomon. Most scholars believe that Ophir was located between modern Ethiopia and Zimbabwe.

With the advent of ships capable of making long voyages, the Phoenicians began to leave their homeland in whole communities and move to neighboring regions, founding colonies there. In the XII - XI centuries BC. e. The Phoenicians settled their colonies along the entire Mediterranean coast: in Asia Minor, Cyprus and Rhodes, Greece and Egypt, Malta and Sicily. The colonies did not lose contact with the mother country and paid tribute to it.

Not only the calculation led the Phoenicians over the horizon, they were also led by a love of wandering, a thirst for novelty, excitement, adventurism, risk, a craving for adventure. They visited the Azores and canary islands, swam to British Isles, for the first time in the history of mankind circumnavigated Africa. The largest colony of the Phoenicians in North Africa was Carthage, established in 825 BC. e. on the shores of the Gulf of Tunis, in a spacious harbor. It originated in the narrowest point of the Mediterranean Sea, in the immediate vicinity of Sicily. The convenient location of the port city allowed him to actively develop trade with Egypt, Greece, and Italy.

Phoenician-Carthaginian warship

Exploring the shores of Africa, the Carthaginians by the 7th century BC. e. created colonies on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, and later took possession of Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica and some islands of the Mediterranean Sea. The Carthaginians carried out several sea voyages along western coasts Africa and shores Western Europe. By the VI century BC. e. refers to the voyage of the Carthaginian king Hanno near the Atlantic coast of Africa. Gannon's fleet consisted of 50 - 60 ships, on which there were more than 30 thousand men and women. As a result of this voyage, African colonies were founded. Carthage existed until 146 BC. e., until it was destroyed by the Roman troops as a result of the long Punic wars.

In navigation, the Carthaginians used the experience of the Phoenicians. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Phoenician ships become double-deck. There are warriors on the upper deck, the sides are covered with shields. On the lower deck there are rowers in two tiers one above the other. The ram on the nose is hidden under water. The Carthaginians began building penthers. Length - 31 m, width at the waterline - 5.5 m, displacement 116 tons. 30 oars were arranged in one row. The crew consisted of 150 rowers, 75 infantrymen, 25 sailors. In the III century BC. e. the number of such warships was 120 - 130 ships. In the years of danger - up to 200 ships. Several thousand people were called up for retraining every year. In 400 BC. e. quadriremes (four-row) appeared in Carthage,

The fleet of Carthage took control of the entire western region of the Mediterranean Sea. On the islands off the coast of Spain in 663 BC. e. its strongholds were established and controlled Gibraltar. Then all of southern Iberia came under the rule of Carthage. The warships of the Carthaginians constantly cruised in this area and blocked foreign ships from entering the Atlantic Ocean. The ships of the Greeks, for fear of being sunk, did not even try to approach the Pillars of Hercules and were forced to go for tin along the inland rivers of Europe. Only in the IV century BC. e. this blockade was lifted.

The Carthaginians themselves successfully sailed north in search of the country of tin and the country of amber. It is known that under the command of Captain Himilcon their ships reached the shores of southern England and Ireland. But the main object of Carthaginian expansion was the islands of the Mediterranean, which were places of trade, protected from attacks for the islanders, who did not have a fleet, and the Carthaginian fleet could protect them from any attacks. Later, Carthage became a republic and the largest port of its time. After the collapse of the Tire state, he was able to subjugate the cities of Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Spain, the Balearic Islands and North Africa. He controlled most of Cyprus, which became not only a stopover for the Carthaginians, but the place where they discovered copper. On the island of Thasos in the Black Sea, they found iron ore, which was very important, since in the X century BC. e. most tools and ornaments were made of iron, which in the Bronze Age cost more than gold and silver.

An outstanding achievement was the voyage of Hanno, a Phoenician from Carthage, who made a trip along West Africa and reached the territory of present-day Cameroon. This naval commander led 60 ships, each of which had 50 rowers, and in total 30 thousand people participated in the campaign. Hannon's account of this journey has come down to us, in which he described meetings and skirmishes with the natives, the animal world of Africa, active volcano Cameroon, which he called the "Chariot of the Gods". The navigator is laconic and, fixing the main stages of the campaign, dwells on the possible dangers that may await those who follow him.

The ancient scientist Diodorus Siculus left for history evidence of a visit by the Phoenicians to islands lying "in the middle of the ocean against Africa." Their description allows us to conclude that we are talking about the island of Madeira. However, many scientists believe that the Phoenicians were not pioneers, they only followed in the footsteps of their great predecessors - the Cretans. The Portuguese discovered it only in the 15th century.

The golden age of Phoenicia lasted almost three centuries - from 1150 to 850 BC. e. The latest achievement of the great shipbuilders of antiquity was the largest ship, which had a 40 m long Lebanese cedar keel, and the rowers were located on it in 11 rows. In total, there were 1800 slaves at the oars.

Around 525 B.C. e. the Carthaginians provided their fleet to the Persian Empire, which subjugated them, to fight against Egypt. Thanks to this help, the Persians conquered Egypt and the Greek colonies in North Africa. Such a service turned the Phoenicians into allies of the Persians, provided them with independence, and also, to their advantage, squeezed out Greek trade. Later Phoenician ships formed the backbone of the Persian fleet. In 480 BC. e. during the campaign of King Xerxes, 1207 Phoenician ships were under his command.

Rome became Carthage's rival. Realizing that it was possible to crush the power of Carthage only by building their warships, the Romans began to build a fleet. In battles with the Phoenicians, they repeatedly suffered defeats, lost almost the entire built fleet, but constantly improved both shipbuilding and the art of naval combat. In 241 BC. e. The Romans made a determined attempt to break the power of Carthage. The Roman authorities appealed to the citizens to build ships at their own expense, provided that the costs would be reimbursed after the victory. If the defeat follows, then not only the ships will perish, but Rome itself. Wealthy citizens of the city pooled all their funds and rebuilt the fleet. The careless Carthaginians did not expect to meet the Roman ships, and a surprise attack led to their complete defeat.

Carthage lost its monopoly in the Mediterranean. The payment of an indemnity for ten years amounted to 3,200 talents. (1 talent - $30,000). Carthage lost both its army and navy. And Rome has become a world power. In 146 BC. e. The Romans burned Carthage to the ground. The hatred for Carthage, which was their constant rival, was so deep that, having razed the city to the ground, they covered the place with salt so that nothing would grow there.

With the fall of Carthage, all information about the voyages and the description of open lands were destroyed by the Romans. As a result, the coasts of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa turned into a solid white spot for the Europeans for one and a half thousand years, and only in the 15th century did they venture to follow the path of the Phoenicians to the equator along the western coasts. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 4th century A.D. e. Phoenicia, previously subject to Rome, became part of Byzantium.

Ancient China

The leading role in the economy of China, especially in the South, has traditionally been played by water transport. The main transport arteries of the country were, of course, its two largest rivers - the Yellow River and the Yangtze. Although there are many other navigable rivers in China (Huaihe and others), they usually flow from west to east. The absence of a reliable waterway in the north-south direction hindered the development of economic and economic ties within the country. Therefore, the Chinese had a need for transport channels.

The world's first contour (using the terrain) Magic Canal, 32 km long, was built in China in the 3rd century BC. e. The author of this unique hydraulic structure was the engineer Shi Lu, who built it by order of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. The construction of the canal was caused by the need to supply the troops deployed in 219 BC. e. to the south of the country to conquer the Yue people. The canal is unusual in that it connects two rivers flowing in opposite directions. The difficulty of constructing the canal was that the Xiang River, originating in the Haiyan Mountains, flows to the north, and the Li River to the south. Both rivers are characterized by a rapid course, so along the Xiang River it was necessary to build a bypass channel 2.4 km long for the passage of ships with a smaller drop in the channel than that of the river. To ensure navigation, the waters of the Li River were directed to another channel with a length of 22 km. Having tamed both rivers in this way, the builders were finally able to connect them with a 5 km long canal. A dam was built across the Xiang River, dividing the channel into two streams - large and small, and took aside most of it. Weirs were built behind the embankment. In the Sinani region, several bridges were thrown across the canal, which was 1 m deep and 4.5 m wide. Thanks to the system of weirs and the division of flows, only a third of the water of the Xiang River entered the connecting channel, and it did not overflow. Year-round navigation on inland waterways with a total length of 2,000 km (from the 40th to the 22nd parallel) became possible. The barges thus reached from the latitude of Beijing, located in the north of the country, to Canton (Guangzhou) and to the sea in the south (where Hong Kong is now). The Magic Canal has become a link in this system of Chinese rivers. By the 9th century, 18 locks had been built on it, and in the 10th-11th centuries, the number of people needed to tow barges decreased. The magic channel began to be called sacred, the dragon was considered its guardian. The canal continues to operate to this day; a modern railway bridge has been built across it.

On the magic channel

Another ancient structure created by the labor of the Chinese people is the Grand or Imperial Canal. The Chinese Grand Canal is the oldest and longest artificial river in the world. The beginning of the construction of the Grand Canal should be considered the period of Springs and Autumns, which is more than 2400 years away from us. The ruler of the principality of Wu in southeastern China, pursuing the goal of moving north in order to gradually take possession of the Central Plain, decided to dig a canal north of the Yangtze. A large number of troops and the population were mobilized for its construction, as a result, a 150-kilometer canal was dug near Yangzhou (now Jiangsu Province), connecting the Yangtze with the Huaihe River. This is the earliest section of the Grand Canal.

The second stage of large-scale construction on the route of the Grand Canal dates back to 605-610. The Sui emperor Yangdi, then ruling, in order to strengthen his power and control over the rich areas south of the Yangtze, undertook the construction of a canal from the capital Luoyang (the current city of Luoyang, Henan Province) in two directions: north to Zhuojun (southeast of present-day Beijing) and south to Yuhang (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province).

At different times, several million people were driven to the construction of the canal. The total length of the new waterway was about 2,500 km.

During the Yuan Dynasty, Beijing became the capital of China. The political center moved from the Central Plain to the north, but the area of ​​the Yangtze and Huaihe basins remained the focus of financial and economic activity. The transportation of grain from the southern regions to Peijing by the circumferential waterway through Luoyang was fraught with great inconvenience. Therefore, around 1283, the third large-scale construction in history was undertaken along the route of the Grand Canal. The direction of the route was changed, the section of the canal between the rivers Haihe, Huanghe and Huaihe was straightened. Thus, it became possible to travel directly from Beijing along the Grand Canal to Hangzhou.

Sections of the Great Chinese Canal

Today Great Chinese Canal It stretches for almost 1800 km, which is 10 times the length of the Suez Canal and 20 times the size of the Panama Canal.

After the change in the course of the Yellow River, insufficient water supply to a site in Shandong Province led to shallowing and the cessation of the operation of the South-North water transport. Today, the Grand Canal is no longer usable along its entire length, but parts of it, especially around Hangzhou and Suzhou, continue to serve as an important waterway.

Many sections of the Beijing-Hangzhou Canal use the former natural rivers and lakes, some of the sections are artificial. The main amount of water in the canal comes from natural rivers.

The purpose of the canal today is transport, irrigation, recreation, water supply. It passes through the territory of 6 provinces and connects five river systems (Haihe, Yellow, Huanghe, Yangtze and Kwaitanyang).

total length ship's passages There are 1027 km on the canal, of which approximately 600 km are classes 2 and 3. The reconstruction of the canal is ongoing. According to the report of the Ministry of Communications of the People's Republic of China for the five years of 1996-2000, two sections were reconstructed, 164 and 293 km long in the southeast of the country. At the same time, 8 ports were expanded, 8 locks were built and 58 bridges were rebuilt. This made it possible to increase the annual transit of goods by 16.5 million tons. The annual volume of water transport in the provinces of Jangsu and Shiyang has reached 260 million tons. After the reconstruction, the southern sections of the Grand Canal received an international award as "the most civilized models of ship passages." In addition to economic benefits, the canal has significantly improved the situation with flood control measures, field irrigation and tourism development, as well as ecology and environmental protection.

For navigation along rivers and canals, the Chinese have built rafts since ancient times, having at hand a convenient and high-quality material - giant bamboo. Its stems reach a height of 24 - 25 m and a diameter of up to 30 cm. Masts and sails were also made from bamboo. Such rafts were cargo ships with a shallow draft: with a load of up to seven tons, the rafts are immersed in water by only 5–7 cm, that is, navigation on such rafts is possible in shallow water, inaccessible to ordinary ships.

Various types of ships of the Ming era.

On Chinese rivers, a type of flat-bottomed boat about 10 meters long with a canopy, a deck, a mast with a rectangular sail and a small room in the hold has long been common. In European literature, it is usually referred to as junk (the word is of Malay origin). Such boats - capacious, stable and at the same time possessing high cross-country ability - were used mainly for the transport of goods. If necessary, the sides of the junk were sheathed with boards, the gaps between them were battened down with a mixture of tung oil and lime. The design of the junk is so rational that it has existed almost unchanged until our time.

There were also large cargo ships in China, reaching a length of 30 meters or more. Usually they were used to transport grain. By the turn of the new era, the ancient Chinese were able to build two-deck ships; in the following centuries, ships with three or more masts and steering appeared in China. Large junks also served as passenger ships on the rivers and lakes of China. Large ships often had lifeboats, and oars were available in case of calm weather.

Chinese junk, photo 1871

Sails and steering oars were used to move ships. The sails were made from bamboo boards and mats between them. Such sails were quite tight, which is important from an aerodynamic point of view, but they could be folded and partially deployed (which is important in windy stormy weather).

In addition, sails made of bamboo boards and mats had the advantage that they could function with many holes and breaks. To control the movement, an oar was used, held at an angle at the stern.

Chinese junk

In addition to square sails, the Chinese used ear-shaped sails, or "luggers". Longitudinal ear-like sails have existed since the 2nd century AD. e. Ships with such sails could take on board 700 people and 260 tons of cargo. Chinese ships were multi-masted.

There were several types of ships in China. The most common were flat-bottomed, so-called sandy ships (sha chuan), as well as "Fujian ships" (fu chuan) and "bird ships" (nyao chuan), the elongated bow and stern of which gave them a resemblance to a bird. Unlike flat-bottomed riverboats designed for shallow water, these ships had a rounded bottom and a high deck, which made them faster and more maneuverable (but less stable). The displacement of sea vessels was usually 500 - 800 tons.

For the first time in China, paddle wheels were used to move ships. The first mention of them dates back to 418. The paddle wheels on the ships were powered by special people using foot pedals. The decks were closed and the opponents, seeing that a ship was moving on them without sails, were horrified, believing that demons were moving the ship. However, such vessels were not adapted to navigation at sea and were used only on rivers and lakes. Management was carried out due to the different speed of rotation of the wheels from different sides. Built very big ships with paddle wheels, for example, a 100-ton warship with 12 wheels is known to have been built in 1168.

Modern Chinese junk with luggers

In the future, ships were built with a large number of wheels. Such vessels could take on board up to 800 people. There were up to 200 sailors turning the wheels.

Marble boat with paddle wheels

For the transportation of goods along the Grand Canal, long narrow barges were built, movably linked in pairs. When crossing the shallows, these barges were separated.

Late 16th century trailer barge loaded with mines

Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome, founded in 753 B.C. e., regularly flooded from the floods of the Tiber River. According to the ancient Roman historian Tacitus, the issue of protecting Rome from floods was discussed in the Roman Senate in 15 AD. In 46, under the emperor Claudius, a canal was built that connected the Tiber with the sea, bypassing the bend of the river. The canal reduced the length of the ship's passage, increased the carrying capacity of the channel, and thereby reduced the rise in the flood level. The canal was reconstructed under the Roman emperor Trajan (53-117) and was named Fossa Trajana (Trajan's Canal). It still exists today under the name Fiumicino.

During the existence of Ancient Rome, the ports of Ostia, Missilia, Bordeaux and others were built, testifying to the high technical culture of the Romans. In their layout, they were similar to modern ports. Some ports were built at the mouths of rivers flowing into the sea and did not have a protective harbor. Merchant ships were often unable to enter the river because of the shallow water and anchored in the sea, transshipping goods onto riverboats moving upriver. In 42, under the emperor Claudius, the Roman port of Ostia was rebuilt: the harbor was fenced off from the sea with two side dams, an island was built at the entrance to the harbor: they flooded big ship and they poured an island, on it a lighthouse. Later, under Trajan, the port was expanded: a pool was dug in the shape of a regular hexagon with a side of 460 m and a depth of 6 m and retaining walls were erected. This pool was connected to Trajan's canal.

Below are images of merchant and warships of the Romans.

Recall that the names of rowing ships are associated with the number of rows of oars:

two rows of oars - a bireme;

three rows of oars - a trireme or trireme;

five rows of oars - penter or pentecoter.

Roman bireme

The reconstruction of the ship was carried out on the basis of a bas-relief in the Temple of Fortune in Prenest, dating from the end of the 2nd century BC. e. A characteristic feature of the vessel is a narrow crinoline-parados, which served not to accommodate the rowers, but to protect the sides. In the ornamental decoration of the stem, clamps for spears were provided. Above the metal battering ram, the stem line has an internal deflection, and then smoothly protrudes forward and passes into a massive acrostool, decorated with a peculiar ornament. The bulwark, located along the entire length of the bireme, had open passages in the bow and stern. For the commander, a place was allotted under a light awning-tent at the stern. In the bow, there was a tower for slingers, characteristic of Roman warships, and a boarding ladder-crow. This type of bireme is a purely rowed vessel propelled by 88 oars.

Roman Empire in the 4th century BC e.

Roman Empire in the 1st century AD

Roman Empire in the 3rd century AD

Roman bireme

Roman trireme (trireme)

Roman trireme (trireme)

Trireme (trireme) is the main type of warship in the Mediterranean. Some researchers attribute the invention of the trireme to the Phoenicians, others call the Corinthian Amenoccus. The main weapon of the trireme was a ram - a continuation of the keel beam. The ship's displacement reached 230 tons, length - 45 m. The oars on the triremes were of various lengths. The strongest rowers were placed on upper deck. The speed of the trireme at the oars was 7 - 8 knots, but all three rows of oars worked only during the battle. Even with a little excitement, the bottom row of oars was pulled inside the ship, and the oar ports were tightened with leather patches. Sailing armament consisted of a large rectangular sail and a small one (artemon) on an inclined mast in the bow of the vessel. The masts were made removable and removed for the duration of the battle. During the battle, the triremes sought to develop the maximum move, hit the enemy with a ram, deprive the move, breaking his oars and "fell" on boarding.

Roman Pentera (Pentecotera)

Roman Pentera (Pentecotera)

Warships with five rows of oars - pentera - were introduced into the Roman navy before the 1st Punic War(264 - 241 BC) due to the fact that the Carthaginians already possessed multi-tiered heavy ships, the board of which, protected by a whole forest of oars, was inaccessible to the ramming of relatively light Roman biremes. In a short time, Rome introduced 120 such ships into its fleet. Each oar was controlled by one rower, the number of oars in one row reached 25. The length of the pentera was about 45 m, and the total number of oars reached 250.

The rowers of the third and fourth upper rows were placed in a closed crinoline - parodos, and the rowers of the lower tier - one above the other in the ship's hull. Coordinated rowing with such a large number of oars was achieved by connecting the oars of one row with a common rope and using stops that limit the amount of stroke.

The prow and stern of the pentera were decorated with an acrostole (a continuation of the stems). The aft part of the ship was surrounded by a canopy gallery with a balustrade, under which a boat was usually hung. Penthers had two masts with combat mars. Sailing armament consisted of large straight sails, used only on crossings with fair winds.

It is known that ships with six or more rows of oars were created. So, in Hercules of Pontus, located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, in the III century BC. e. The Greeks built the ship "Leontofer" with eight rows of oars on each side - an octerus. There were 100 rowers in each row. Thus, on this ship there could be 1600 rowers and another 1200 warriors.

In Syracuse (Ancient Egypt), under Ptolemy IV Philopator (about 200 BC), a tessarokontera was built - a ship with 40 rows of oars. Its length was 125 m, the height of the top of the side was 22 m, and to the highest point of the vessel it was 26.5 m. The largest oars on the ship were 19 m long, lead was poured into their handle for balancing. This ship had 4,000 rowers, 400 other crew members, and 3,000 soldiers. The speed of this ship was up to 7.5 km / h.