History of the Philippine Islands. History of the Philippines
Republic of the Philippines(Tagalog: Republika ng Pilipinas), or Philippines(Pilipinas) - a state in the South East Asia. Consists of many islands located in pacific ocean between Indonesia and Taiwan.
Geographical position
The Philippines occupies the Philippine Islands, which are part of the Malay Archipelago. The largest of more than 7100 islands belonging to the Philippines are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Panay, Palawan, Negros, Mindoro, Leyte, Bohol, Cebu. The length of the Philippine archipelago from north to south is about 2000 km, from west to east - 900 km. In the west, the islands are washed by the South China Sea, in the east by the Philippine Sea, in the south by the Sulawesi Sea, in the north the Philippine Islands are separated from Taiwan by the Bashi Strait. The length of the coastline is 36.3 thousand km. The total area of the islands is 299.7 thousand km².
The relief of the islands is made up mainly of mountains, the highest of which - Apo volcano (2954 m) - is located on the island of Mindanao. The mountain ranges are of volcanic origin, since the archipelago is located at the junction of the continental and oceanic lithospheric plates and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which is characterized by increased seismicity and volcanism. Deep sea trenches and volcanic islands distinguishing feature Philippines. Off the coast of the island of Mindanao, the Philippine Trench passes with a depth of up to 10,830 m - one of the deepest in the world's oceans.
Climate
The climate of the islands is tropical, monsoon, turning into subequatorial in the south. Temperatures on the coast are 24-28°C, in mountainous areas cooler. The rainy season lasts from May to November, when the southwest monsoon blows. The dry season (November to April) is expressed in the west of Luzon, Palawan and the Visayas. On the northern regions countries often hit by typhoons, tsunamis are possible. The amount of precipitation per year varies from 1000 to 4000 mm.
Flora and fauna
About half of the territory of the Philippines is covered with tropical rainforests, which are dominated by palm trees, rubber trees, banyan, apitong, mayapis, lauan, bamboo, orchids, and cinnamon are often found. At an altitude of over 1200 m above sea level, shrubs and meadows grow.
Among the animals living in the Philippine Islands, deer, mongoose, wild boar are more common than others. The fauna of the country is characterized by a wide variety of species of birds and reptiles. In the coastal waters there are many species of fish and shellfish, among the latter, pearl mussels are especially remarkable - shellfish capable of forming pearls.
State structure
The Philippines is a presidential republic with a bicameral Congress and an independent judiciary.
The President is elected by the population for a 6-year term, the Senate (24 seats) - also for a 6-year term, the House of Representatives (240 seats) - for a 3-year term.
Political parties
The main parties following the elections in May 2007:
- Lacas/Kampi/Christian and Muslim Democrats - centrist, 4 senators, 142 deputies
- Nationalist People's Coalition - centrist, 2 senators, 28 deputies
- Liberal Party - center-left, 4 senators, 14 deputies
- Nationalist Party - center-right, 3 senators, 8 deputies
- Bayan - left, 7 deputies
- Democratic Party / Laban - center-left, 1 senator, 4 deputies
- Pversa Masan - center-left, 2 senators, 3 deputies
- United opposition - centrist, 2 senators, 3 deputies
One of the communist parties has had an armed organization since 1969 - the New People's Army (in the early 1980s - about 25 thousand fighters, in 2009 - about 4 thousand).
Islamist armed groups also operate in the Philippines - the Moro Islamic Liberation Front and Abu Sayyaf.
Administrative division
The main administrative unit of the Philippines is a province. The Philippines is divided into 80 provinces grouped into 17 regions. Some so-called "independent" cities are not legally part of the provinces. The provinces are divided into municipalities and incorporated cities. Municipalities are divided into elementary administrative units - barangay communities.
Story
ancient time
Beginning in the 5th century, a civilization based on a mixture of different cultures and nationalities formed on the territory of modern Philippines. The indigenous people of the islands, commonly known as the Negritos and the Aetians, overcame prehistoric lands and continental glaciers and eventually settled in the lush forests of the islands. Later, Austronesian-speaking settlers from South China arrived on the islands via Taiwan. Chinese merchants arrived in the 8th century. Belonging to the Indo-Malay maritime kingdoms in the 7th-17th centuries, the Philippines were discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.
XIV century - the landing of the Arabs. By the time the first Europeans arrived in the north of the islands (on the territory of present-day Manila), rajas ruled, who, due to historical conditions, paid tribute to the states of Southeast Asia, namely the kingdom of Srivijaya. However, in essence, the Philippine Islands were already self-sufficient and had their own internal government.
Spanish period (1521-1898)
1521 - Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan lands in the Philippines.
1565 - On April 27, the Spanish conquistador Miguel Lopez de Lagaspi, accompanied by four hundred armed soldiers, arrived on the islands and founded Cebu, the first Spanish settlement. From 1543, the islands became known as the Philippines in honor of the Spanish prince, and later King Philip II. The territory was subject to the Viceroy of New Spain. Established sea communication Acapulco-Manila. Spanish and Catholicism became widespread, with the exception of the southern rebellious islands inhabited by Muslims.
In 1762, after a fierce battle, Manila was captured by British colonial troops, but the next year they were returned to Spain. The enemies of Spain intensified the national liberation movement. Muslims and the local Chinese diaspora were anti-Spanish.
To XIX century a stratum of Hispanic Filipino Catholics, Creoles and mestizos appeared, who became leaders in the struggle for independence. José Rizal, the most famous propagandist, was arrested and executed in 1896 for subversion. Shortly thereafter, the Philippine Revolution began, led by the Three K Society (Kataastaasan at Kagalang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan), or Katipunan, a secret revolutionary society founded by Andres Bonifacio and later led by Emilio Aguinaldo. The revolutionaries nearly succeeded in expelling the Spaniards by 1898.
American period (1898-1946)
In 1898, after the Spanish–American War, Spain ceded the Philippines, Cuba, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States of America for $20 million under the 1898 Treaty of Paris. On June 12, 1898, the Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, declared themselves independent from Spain. This led to rebel wars and revolution during the Philippine-American War, which officially ended in 1901, although sporadic battles continued until 1913. With its own small government, the Philippine Islands became a dependent territory of the United States and only in 1935 they received the status of autonomy within the United States. While the Philippines was autonomous, the Philippines sent a non-elected representative to the lower house of the US Congress, as do the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands at present.
During World War II, the Philippines was occupied by the Japanese.
Independent Philippines
In fact, the Philippines was finally granted independence in 1946.
The subsequent period was overshadowed by post-war problems. Citizen unrest during the unrecognized dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos ended only in 1986. On the this moment difficulties arise with the uprisings of the Maoists (see: Communist Party of the Philippines) and Trotskyists (see: Revolutionary Workers Party of the Philippines and Revolutionary Workers Party of Mindanao), as well as Muslim separatism (see: Moro National Liberation Front, Moro Islamic Liberation Front, Abu Group Sayyaf).
Economy
Advantages: open to foreign investors. Growing productivity in agriculture. Export of bananas and pineapples. Significant remittances from citizens working abroad.
Weaknesses: Energy problems limit development opportunities. Underdeveloped infrastructure. Due to the small amount of monetary savings of citizens, dependence on foreign financial resources. Unproductive natural economy.
Today the Philippines is an agro-industrial country. The most developed industries are: electronic, textile, chemical, woodworking, food, pharmaceutical. Agriculture includes fishing and forestry. The Philippines is the largest exporter of coconuts, bananas, rice and pineapples. The most important trading partners are the USA, Taiwan, Germany, Japan, Hong Kong. The country has a fairly well developed transport infrastructure - railways, roads, river and sea transport. Major ports countries: Davao, Manila and Cebu. The monetary unit is the Philippine peso.
Population
The population is 99.9 million people. (July 2010 estimate, 12th in the world).
Annual growth - 1.9%.
Urban population - 65% (in 2008).
Literacy - 93% (according to the 2000 census).
Ethnic composition: Tagals 28.1%, Cebuano 13.1%, Ilocano 9%, Binisaya 7.6%, Hiligaynon 7.5%, Bikol 6%, Warai 3.4%, other 25.3% (2000 census) of the year).
The country has two official languages, Pilipino (based on Tagalog) and English.
Languages
The official language is Tagalog (Tagalog, or Pilipino). The majority of the population speaks Filipino languages of the Austronesian family, the most common being Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Bicol, Hiligaynon, Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Warai-Warai. A significant part of the population speaks English. Spanish (3%), Spanish-Creole Chabacano (1%), and Chinese are also common. Spanish in the Philippines for over three centuries (1571-1898) served as the only written language of the country. However, due to the extreme remoteness of Spain, he never became native to the bulk of the local population. The Spanish-American War of 1898 ended with the transfer of the Philippines under the control of the United States. Spanish, however, retained the traditional function of the lingua franca in the country until the early 1950s, after which the American government made active efforts to replace it with English. First, Spanish lost its official status under the 1973 constitution, and then ceased to be taught in schools as a compulsory subject after 1986. Currently, at the insistence of President Gloria Arroyo, active attempts are being made to revive the classical Spanish language in the country, since almost all historical, literary and revolutionary documents for more than a four hundred year period new history islands are written in Spanish. Moreover, all the indigenous languages of the Philippines, including the main among them - Tagalog - retain significant layers of Spanish vocabulary, which makes up to 40% of their vocabulary. English language in the Philippines it is widely used, especially in science, education, and the press.
Religions
The Catholic religion is professed by 80.9% of the population, Protestants - 11.6%, Muslims - 5%, some Filipinos adhere to traditional beliefs.
Tourism
The largest city in the Philippines, Manila, is located on the island of Luzon. It is the capital of the state, the main cultural and economic center. Manila is the center of the Greater Manila conurbation, with a population of 10 million people. It includes such large cities as Quezon City, Kalookan and Pasay. Located in Manila National Museum Philippines, museum natural history and Anthropology of Santo Tomas, Metropolitan Museum of Art. In the historical center of Intramuros - fortifications, churches, houses of the XVI-XVIII centuries, the Botanical Garden. Tourists are offered sightseeing tours in Manila, to Taal Lake, air safaris and folklore shows are organized.
The Philippines is famous for its beaches and picturesque coral reefs. The most famous tourist resorts located in the southern part of the archipelago on the islands of Boracay, Cebu, Bohol and Palawan. Tourists are offered beach holiday, and more active - cruises, diving, surfing.
The islands have numerous National parks, faunal reserves and forest reserves. The largest and most interesting for tourists are Mount Apo, Taal, Mayon, Kanlaon, located on the islands of Luzon and Mindanao.
The Philippines has sufficient recreational resources, natural and socio-cultural. Today, the islands offer almost all types of tourism: beach, extreme, sports, ecological, educational. Tourism is negatively affected by the politically unstable situation in the country, conflicts between the Muslim and Christian communities. In addition, the monsoon climate and the rainy season, which lasts more than 10 months, do not contribute to the development of beach tourism.
400 thousand years BC. e.
Protohumans live in the Philippines - Homo erectus (lat. Homo erectus)
40 thousand years BC e.
Estimated time of appearance of the first modern humans (lat. Homo sapiens) in the Philippines. Probably the first inhabitants of the Philippines were Australoids (Negritos). The descendants of the first settlers were the current dark-skinned hill tribes (Aeta, etc.).
3rd millennium BC e.
Material evidence of people's stay in the Philippine Islands is the petroglyphs of Angono.
2nd millennium BC e.
The settlement of the Philippines by Austronesian-speaking tribes who came by sea from the coast of China - the ancestors of the current Filipinos.
1 millennium BC e. - 1571
On Luzon there is a so-called. Kingdom of Luzon with its capital in Tondo.
Around the 1st century BC e.
Ancient authors describe the legendary golden island of Chris (Chris or Chris). Some authors refer to the location of Chrysa as the Philippine archipelago. Perhaps at this time Greek merchants reached the Philippines.
Around 900
The first known written document in the Filipino language was created - the so-called. "copper tablet from Laguna" containing Sanskrit, Old Javanese and Old Tagalog words.
1205 - 1800
There is an Islamic state in Mindanao - the Sultanate of Maguindanao
1373
Diplomatic relations of the Kingdom of Luzon with the Chinese Ming dynasty.
1380
The oldest mosque in the Philippines, the Sheikh Karim Makhdum Mosque, was built in Jolo.
Around 1500
Attack on Luzon by the Sultanate of Brunei
March 16, 1521
Discovery of the Philippines by Western navigators. The expedition of Ferdinand Magellan lands on the island of Homonhon
1565
Expedition of Miguel Legazpi to the Philippines
1565 - 1821
The Philippines is part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain
Conclusion of a blood pact (Sandugo) between Miguel Legazpi and Datu Skatuna
October 8, 1565
Andres Urdaneta completed the return passage from Manila to Acapulco through the northern latitudes, opened the "Urdaneta route"
1567
Anti-Spanish uprising in Cebu
1574
Anti-Spanish uprising in Manila
1578
Catholic bishop settles in Manila
1585
1587 - 1588
Anti-Spanish conspiracy in Manila and some other cities
1590
The Jesuits founded a school in Manila, which later became the University of St. Ignacio, the first not only in the Philippines, but also in Asia
1593
Beginnings of printing in the Philippines
1595
Catholic archbishop settles in Manila
1596
Uprising in Cagayan Province
1601
Anti-Catholic demonstrations in northern Luzon
1611
St. Thomas University opened
1621 - 1622
Rebellion in Bohol, Cebu, Leyte
1625 - 1627
Uprising in Cagayan Province
1639
Uprising in Cagayan Province
1640
The Ilok pre-Hispanic epic poem "The Life of Lam-Ang" (Biag ni Lam-ang) was recorded
June 10, 1647
Battle of Puerto de Cavite. Naval battle between the Spaniards and the Dutch squadron, part of the so-called. "Eighty Years' War" (Dutch Revolution). 12 Dutch ships laid siege to the port in Manila Bay, the most important strategic point that provided the communication of the colony with the metropolis by Manila galleons. The Spaniards and Filipinos organized a defense and sank the Dutch flagship with artillery fire. The Dutch retreated, control of Manila Bay remained in the hands of Spain.
1649 - 1650
Uprising in Northern Samara, Mindanao, Bikol, Cebu and other islands
1660
Rebellion in Arayat Province
1660 - 1661
Anti-Spanish uprising in Luzon
1661
Ilocan uprising
1663
Religious uprising in Panay
1744 - 1829
The longest uprising in the history of the Philippines - led by F. Dagohoy
1745 - 1746
Rebellion in the Calabarzon region
1762
British fleet captures Manila
1762 - 1763
Rebellion in the province of South Ilocos
1763
Philippines returned to Spain under Paris Peace Treaty
1821
As a result of the Mexican War of Independence, Spain loses its American colonies. The Philippines, from subordination to the virtually disappeared Viceroyalty of New Spain, passes into direct control from Madrid.
1834
Manila is officially open for foreign trade
1870
Subjugated the Muslim Sultanate of Sulu in the southern Philippines
1892 - 1897
The secret patriotic anti-Spanish organization Katipunan operates in the Philippines
April 1896 - 1898
Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule
March 22, 1897
Philippine Republic proclaimed
May 1, 1898
The American fleet arrived in Manila, where they defeated the Spaniards
1902
Official end of the Philippine–American War, defeat of the Filipinos
1902
Establishment of the Independent Philippine Church
1907
Elected Assembly established
1916
The U.S. Congress passed the Philippine Autonomy Act, formally declaring the desire for Philippine independence.
1918
The Philippines entered World War I, sending 31 thousand soldiers to Europe as part of the American army and navy
1931
Peasant uprisings in Luzon
1932
The adoption of the law in the United States on the intention to grant independence to the Philippines within 10 years
1935
First presidential election
December 1941
Beginning of the Japanese invasion of the Philippines
October 14, 1943
The formal independence of the Philippine Republic is proclaimed
March 1942
Hukbalahap People's Anti-Japanese Army established
October 17, 1944
The landing of American troops led by General MacArthur on Leith
February 1945
American troops occupy Manila
July 1945
Destroyed all major Japanese units in the Philippines
July 4, 1946
Philippines proclaimed independence
1950
Filipino troops participate in the Korean War on the side of the United States
1951
Peace treaty signed with Japan. The Philippines ended up receiving $800 million in reparations.
1954
The Philippines joined the SEATO military-political bloc
1956
Philippine Liberation Army disbanded
1956
Several uninhabited islands were discovered as part of the Spratly archipelago, on which the municipality of Kalayaan would later be formed
1965
F. Marcos came to power as a result of presidential elections
1966 - 1970
Filipino troops participate in the Vietnam War on the side of the United States
1968
Beginning of armed uprisings by Muslim separatists in Mindanao
1971
Marcos suspends constitution, sentences political opponents to death
1974
Surrendered the last Japanese soldier from the occupation forces of World War II
1977
An exchange of embassies between the USSR and the Philippines took place
1981
Marcos formally lifts state of emergency
1983
Assassination of opposition leader Benigno (Ninoy) Akina
1986
Extraordinary presidential elections. The opposition has a single candidate - Corazon Aquino, the widow of the murdered senator. Election results are rigged in favor of Marcos. As a result of the coup, K. Aquino comes to power. Marcos flees to the USA.
1992
Last US military bases in the Philippines closed
The official name is the Republic of the Philippines (Republika сg Pilipinas, Republic of the Philippines). They are located on 7107 islands of the Philippine archipelago southeast of the Eurasian continent. The area is 300.8 thousand km2, the population is 84.5 million people. The official language is Filipino; the official languages are Filipino and English. The capital is Greater Manila, since 1975 it has consisted of Manila itself and 16 satellite cities with a population of 9.2 million people. (2002). Public holiday - Independence Day June 12 (since 1970). The monetary unit is the peso (equal to 100 centavos). The Philippines claims ownership of 8 islands of the Spratly archipelago in the South China Sea.
Member of the UN (since 1945) and its committees and organizations, as well as the IMF, IBRD, APEC, ASEAN (1967), etc.
Sights of the Philippines
Geography of the Philippines
Located between 21°25' and 4°23' north latitude and 116°40' and 127° east longitude. They are washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea. 100 km from the archipelago in the Pacific Ocean is the Philippine Trench with a depth of 10,789 m. Coastline- OK. 18 thousand km is indented, there are few good harbors. Largest islands- Luzon (105 thousand km2) and Mindanao (95 thousand km2). All borders are maritime: with Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the island of Taiwan. More than 3/4 of the territory of the Philippines - mountains and hills. largest mountain system- Central Cordillera (with the highest point of 2934 m) on the island of Luzon. highest point Philippines - Apo volcano (2954 m) on the island of Mindanao. Lowland - narrow strips along the coasts or along the course of rivers. The largest plains are the Central, or Manila, on the island of Luzon and Cotabato on the island of Mindanao. There are few lakes, the largest are Laguna de Bai, Taal and Lanao. St. 400 rivers, mostly small, they are rapids and stormy; the largest - Cotabato (550 km) and Cagayan (350 km) are navigable in downstream. 5 inter-island seas - Sibuyan, Samar, Visayan, Kamote and Mindanao (the last deepest - 1975 m). Lateritic soils predominate. Among the 10 thousand plant species, more than 9 thousand are higher, 40% of the species are endemic, 5.5 million hectares are covered with forest. The fauna is peculiar: a large percentage of endemics, no large mammals, more than 450 species of birds. The seas are rich in fish - more than 2 thousand species; mother-of-pearl and pearls are obtained from some shells. Large deposits of copper ore (probable reserves in metal 9.2 million tons), chromites (10-15 million tons), gold ore (14 million tons), iron (590 million tons), nickel (3 million tons in metal). Fuel and energy resources do not meet the needs of the country, oil is imported. The climate is maritime tropical monsoon type. The annual rainfall is from 1000 to 4500 mm, the annual air temperature is approx. +27°С with fluctuation amplitude of 2-4°С. The archipelago is prone to typhoons.
Population of the Philippines
Since the 1970s the population doubled, and the annual growth rate fell from 2.9% to 1.1%. Infant mortality 31 people per 1000 newborns (2001). 59% of the total population lives in cities. There are slightly more men than women. Average life expectancy is 69 years. The population is young. Nearly 95% of the population over the age of 15 is literate. More than ½ of Filipinos speak English.
The population is polyethnic - up to 100 ethnic groups; large - Bisayans (1/3 of the population), Tagals (1/4 of the population; play a leading role in the life of the country), Ilokans, Bikols. The indigenous population is anthropologically homogeneous, belongs to the South Asian variety of the Mongoloid race, speaks almost 100 related languages (the Philippine group of the western branch of the Austronesian language family). Of the small nationalities, the Aeta, or Negrito, stand out - the descendants of the Negro-Australoid aborigines of the equatorial race. Of the non-indigenous people, the Chinese predominate. According to the Constitution, the church is separated from the state, freedom of religion is confirmed. The vast majority of the population are Christians, of which St. 80% are Catholics (they were converted to Catholicism by the Spaniards in the 17th century), more than 5% are Protestants, 5-6% are Muslims, approx. 2% - animists, etc.
History of the Philippines
From antiquity to the beginning of European expansion (the last quarter of the 16th century), the Philippines was a peripheral part of the cultural and historical Malay-Indonesian area. Since the 1580s to con. 1890s Philippines - a colony of Spain, freed from colonial dependence as a result of the national revolution of 1896-98. With the victory of the rebels in 1898, the First independent republic and the democratic Constitution of 1898 was adopted. In the same year, under the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty, which ended the Spanish-American War of 1898, the Philippines became a colony of the United States. Since 1901 and almost the entire 1st floor. 20th century The Philippines is a colony of the United States, which proclaimed a liberal course to prepare Filipinos for self-government (in particular, they introduced a system of elections and parties since 1907). Since 1934, the United States introduced a 10-year autonomy regime in the Philippines. transition period before full sovereignty. The Constitution was adopted in 1935, and the Filipino President M. Quezon (1935-44) was elected. In 1941-45 the Philippines survived the Japanese occupation. After the expulsion of the invaders (spring 1945) - the beginning of decolonization. In April 1946 - the election of the first president of the independent Philippines - M. Rojas (1946-48), protege of the United States, a politician of an extremely conservative persuasion. The American model of decolonization, which in many ways infringed on the sovereignty of the Philippines, did not suit the majority of Filipinos. Social tension resulted in a bloody peasant war of 1948-53, led by the communists. The decisive role in defeating the uprising was played by R. Magsaysay, from 1950 - Minister of Defense, then President of the Philippines (1954-57). All R. 1950s - ser. 60s in the Philippines, a kind of facade "oligarchic" democracy was established (real power is in the hands of several landowning clans who manipulated democratic laws and institutions). Since 1965, the President of the Philippines, F. Marcos, was re-elected in 1969. In September 1972, he introduced a state of emergency in the Philippines, establishing a regime of personal power. His plans for accelerated modernization were not implemented due to the growth of corruption, kronism, and the crisis in the economy (the turn of the 1970s and 80s). In February 1986, the dictatorship was destroyed as a result of mass bloodless actions in Manila of opponents of authoritarianism (the "power of the people" revolution). For the first time in the history of the Philippines, a woman became president - K. Aquino (1986-92). In 1987 a democratic constitution was adopted. Otherwise, the deepening of the crisis in the economy and destabilization continued. The 1992 elections were won by F. Ramos (1992-98), the only one of the "post-authoritarian" leaders who managed to stabilize the situation. In contrast to the reformer Ramos, the 1998 elections were won by a populist, a former film actor J. Estrada, who was convicted of corruption and removed from power in 2000 (the People's Power-2 revolution). Since January 2001, the President of the Philippines has again been a female politician, G. Macapagal-Arroyo. Her government received a heavy legacy from J. Estrada, and so far attempts to improve the economy and resume the course of modernization have been ineffective.
State structure and political system of the Philippines
The Philippines is a democratic unitary state, a republic with a presidential form of government. The Constitution adopted in 1987 is in force. Administratively, the Philippines is divided into provinces (73), united in 17 administrative and economic regions, municipalities, barangays (rural districts). Large provinces: Pampanga, Rizal, Quezon, Ilocos (North and South), Cebu, Iloilo, Maguindanao, etc. Big cities: Greater Manila, Davao, Cebu, Iloilo, etc.
The principles of public administration are based on the election of government bodies and the separation of its branches - legislative, executive, judicial. The highest body of legislative power is the bicameral Congress. The upper house - the Senate (24 senators aged at least 35), is elected for 6 years with by-elections every 3 years and the right to re-election for a second term. The head of the upper house is the president of the senate, who is elected by the senators. The House of Representatives (head - speaker) is elected for 3 years, consisting of no more than 250 deputies (from the age of 25) with the right to re-election for 3 terms. The President of the Philippines has the supreme executive power (the age for election is not younger than 40 years, residence in the Philippines for at least 10 years before the election). The President (and together with him the Vice President) is elected for 6 years without the right to re-election for a second term. At the same time, he is the head of state, government (forms a cabinet responsible to him), supreme commander. The president cannot dissolve parliament, but has the power of veto when bills pass through congress. In extreme situations, the president has the right to declare a state of emergency for a period limited by Congress.
The Philippines has universal suffrage for all citizens from the age of 18. The electoral system of the Philippines is of a mixed type, including elements of the majoritarian (election of the president - vice president, as well as senators by direct secret ballot of the all-Philippine electorate) and a modified proportional system. Elements of the latter are present in elections to the lower house (the principle of proportional representation in voting by constituencies and party lists). Preservation in the political system of the Philippines stereotypes of traditional political culture (clan in politics, the system of paternalistic vertical ties, etc.) has a negative impact on the electoral system. The Philippines is among the developing countries with a consistently high rate of electoral law violations - the practice of vote trading, ballot fraud, pressure from above on the electorate, outbreaks of open violence, and so on.
Outstanding presidents: President of the autonomous Philippines - M. Quezon (1935-44), known for the unique phenomenon of mass popularity, combined with a tough style of government, pro-Americanism and anti-communism; F. Marcos (1965-86), who failed the modernization program, but deserves attention by reorienting the unilateral pro-American foreign policy of the Philippines towards expanding cooperation and partnership with Asian states; F. Ramos (1992-98), pragmatist and intellectual who achieved success in economic modernization and stabilization of society without breaking democratic structures and legal orders.
Local authorities - governors of provinces, mayors of cities, provincial legislative assemblies, municipal councils - are formed on the basis of the same system of elections as the highest authorities. The principles of decentralized management have been introduced locally, the authorities have been given broad powers in the field of budgetary, tax policy, etc. Their activities are controlled by Congress (a source of corruption among both Congressmen and local leaders).
The Philippines is characterized by an unformed multi-party system, which includes fragile conglomerates of parties of the traditional type (associations around leaders, not programs). The two leading parties in the past - the Nationalists (founded in 1907) and the Liberal (founded in 1946) - could not consolidate after being dispersed during the years of authoritarianism, at present they are weak formations and factions in both pro-government and opposition coalitions and blocs. The pro-presidential coalition "Lakas" ("Power of the people") unites several parties and blocs, incl. such as the "National Union of Christian Democrats", "Struggle for Philippine Democracy", "Provincial Development Party", etc. Opponents of "Lacas" - "Party of the Masses" of ex-president Estrada, "People's Reform Party", etc. The left flank of the opposition - the legal "Party of Workers" (founded in 2001) with a program of peaceful forms of struggle for the interests of workers. Left radical illegal, operating from con. 1960s Communist Party of the Philippines (left), leads the armed guerrilla of the "New People's Army" and is part of the "National Democratic Front".
Leading business organizations: Philippine Chambers of Industry and Commerce; Federation of Philippine-Chinese Chambers of Commerce and Industry.
Active elements of civil society are non-governmental organizations (NGOs), their development is encouraged by the state, in particular, in the form of financial support. The fields of activity of NGOs are environmental protection, work to improve the life of peasants, etc. Participate in politics: in elections and as organizers of mass peaceful demonstrations with a pro- and anti-government orientation. Anti-globalization organizations are in the process of formation, they adhere to the tactics of non-violent actions. Major NGOs in the Philippines: Village Transformation Movement, Green Forum, etc.
The main tasks in the field of domestic policy of the Philippines are the implementation of economic modernization as the basis for stabilizing society; consolidation of the political elite around the presidential reform program, suppression of the opposition, especially its extremist movements. None of these tasks are performed. Criticism of President Arroyo for indecision in the fight against corruption, kronism, inability to solve the problem of poverty and eliminate the hotbed of violence in the Muslim South comes not only from her opponents, but also from her inner circle (representatives of the middle class, the leadership of the Catholic Church, the military elite). The internal political state of the Philippines remains uncertain and unstable.
The formation of the foreign policy of the Philippines and the adoption of foreign policy decisions are concentrated in the hands of the president (maximum authority), the Philippine Foreign Ministry, its head (often also the vice president), the Security Council, and the National Intelligence Coordination Agency. Under the Constitution of 1987, the role of the Congress in shaping the foreign policy course was strengthened (international agreements come into force only after they are ratified by 2/3 of the members of the Senate). Since the presidency of Marcos, the foreign policy of the Philippines has been based on subjectivity in international relations, the priority of the tasks of ensuring national interests, the independence and multilateralism of diplomacy. With the multipolar system of foreign policy relations of the Philippines, special attention is paid to active equal participation in regional affairs and new integration processes in the SEEA region. At the same time, the political elite of the Philippines has never been faced with the question of giving up the priority of relations with the United States (weakened in the early 1990s after the withdrawal of American military bases from the Philippines) as a guarantor of regional and national security. Under the Arroyo government, the US military presence in the archipelago has been restored, so far in a format that does not violate the Constitution of the Philippines. As the United States placed the Philippines in a zone of international terrorism, Arroyo brought in US military advisers and counterterrorism experts to assist local troops in operations against Muslim separatists. The increase in pro-Americanism in Philippine foreign policy worries their ASEAN partners (especially Muslim countries) and causes an increase in anti-Americanism among Filipinos, who fear the possibility of direct participation of Americans in military operations (in violation of the Constitution). Meanwhile, the Muslim South is still far from peace. One of the reasons is the low professionalism and outdated technical equipment of the Philippine army, the weakest in the ASEAN countries. The army in the Philippines is regular, formed partly on the basis of compulsory military service (from the age of 20), partly from persons hired for 3 years under contracts. It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force and the Navy. The total number is less than 200 thousand people. The Constitution fixes the priority of civil power over the Armed Forces, the military cannot engage in business and politics (except for participation in elections). But among a part of the officer corps, dissatisfaction with the inefficiency of state policy is brewing, so attempts at military conspiracies and rebellions are not ruled out (such precedents have already happened during the years of K. Aquino).
The Philippines has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR in 1976).
Economy of the Philippines
The Philippines is one of the five most advanced economies in Southeast Asia, known as the "Asian Tigers" of the second wave. The economic policy of all governments of the period of independence reflected the nature of the political regime, for example, authoritarian under F. Marcos, "new democracy" under C. Aquino, F. Ramos, G. Arroyo. The Philippines later than other states of the "five" (it includes, in addition to the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia) began to modernize the economy. The country suffered several serious economic and socio-political crises, which greatly weakened the economy and hindered its modernization. Since 2000, the negative impact on the Philippines of the recession in the world economy, especially in the United States, and the aggravation of the socio-political situation in the country itself, incl. separatist armed uprisings in Muslim areas in the South. The restructuring of the economy is hindered by corrupt bureaucracy and management of the so-called. crowns, or "friends". Important economic reforms remain largely on paper.
Since the 1970s The Philippines began to lag behind other economically more developed countries in Southeast Asia in terms of economic growth. In 2003, the economic growth rate increased to 4.5%, and the volume of GDP - up to 80 billion US dollars.
In GDP consumption, the share of personal consumption is the highest: in 2001 it amounted to 2561.2 billion pesos, exceeding 5.8 times government spending and 4.1 times gross savings. Gross national income per capita in 2001 amounted to 1050 US dollars, and more than 1/4 of the population was below the poverty line. Most of this group is in rural areas. A sharp problem remains a sharp inequality in the distribution of income. Inflation 4.5% (2003).
3/4 of the labor force, or 32.5 million people, was the labor force, incl. 29.4 million were employed and 3.1 million were unemployed. With an increase in the technological level of production, the quality of labor indicators is changing - the number of qualified specialists is growing. Labor law valid from con. 1980s and applies only to a minority of the labor force - members of trade unions. It determines wage matters, including minimums and allowances, working hours, and so on. Pensions and other benefits are provided by two insurance organizations, unemployment assistance is provided exclusively by charitable organizations.
Sectoral structure of GDP (1981 and 2001,%): industry 39.2 and 31.2, agriculture 24.9 and 15.2, services 35.9 and 53.6.
In industry, the greatest changes in the technical level have occurred in the largest group of industries - the manufacturing industry. But its share (as well as the entire industrial sector) has decreased to 22.4% of GDP in 2001; the share of construction increased to 5.4%, utilities to 3%, and mining decreased to 0.2%. The structure of the manufacturing industry is changing most noticeably due to an increase in the production of high-tech products for export.
In agriculture, the most backward sector of GDP, 2/3 of the value falls on agriculture, 1/3 - on other sectors - animal husbandry, poultry farming, fishing and forestry. Rice and corn, vegetables and fruits are mainly grown for the local market, but there is not enough food of their own.
The largest industry in the service sector is trade, which accounted for 14.6% of GDP in 2001, followed by personal and public services- 11.7 and 9.9%, respectively, for other services (real estate transactions, transport, communications, warehousing and financial transactions) - 17.4%. Trade, both in terms of value and number of employees, dominates among other services. Wholesale prices are growing more slowly than consumer prices - in 2001 they increased to 134.7 points at 1995 = 100, and consumer prices - up to 149.6 points.
In the Philippines, an island and mountainous country, an important place is occupied by the transportation of passengers and goods by road and shipping. Railways few. Air traffic is poorly developed. The communication system - telephone, telegraph and telex - does not satisfy the needs of the population in its services. In terms of the development of foreign tourism - the income received from it and the number of tourists - the Philippines lags far behind the most economically advanced countries in Southeast Asia. In 2002, the number of tourists from the USA, Japan, China, the EU, Australia and other countries was approx. 3 million people
The central bank, established in 1949, manages and controls the credit and financial system. It manages gold and foreign exchange reserves, maintains the peso exchange rate, carries out foreign exchange transactions, controls the operations of commercial banks, and performs other functions. The credit and financial system is dominated by commercial banks. The volume of resources of development banks, savings and agricultural, insurance is much less. Usury persisted in rural areas. Domestic and foreign loans and credits are one of the main forms of financing the economic development of the Philippines. The national capital market is poorly developed. The role of the stock exchanges (Manila, Makati, Metropolitan) in the mobilization of capital remains insignificant. The government makes extensive use of state credit to cover the state budget deficit. Foreign loans lead to an increase in external debt, which in 2001 was 73.3%, or 2/3 of GDP, with foreign exchange reserves of 13.44 billion US dollars and gold reserves of 2.2 billion US dollars, or 4 times higher than them. Net foreign exchange reserves as of May 2003 were $12.5 billion.
The current monetary system was introduced with the creation of a central bank, which was assigned the right to control money circulation and the monopoly right to issue money against the security of foreign exchange reserves, commercial bills, government securities, etc. The structure of money circulation is dominated by deposit money. To the beginning 2002 of the 2139.0 billion pesos in circulation, they accounted for 1746.8 billion pesos, cash - 392.25 billion.
In public finance, a special place is occupied by the state budget, the basis of which is the central budget. It finances local budgets. The bulk of income is tax revenue. Expenses go mainly to finance social and economic development. The state budget for the most part is reduced to a deficit, especially from the con. 1990s Revenues in 2001 amounted to 561.9 billion pesos, expenses - 706.4 billion i.e. the deficit accounted for almost 150 billion pesos. In 2002 it increased to over 200 billion pesos, or 3.3% of GDP. In 2003, it was expected to grow to 4.7% of GDP. The use of loans from international financial institutions and individual states to cover the deficit, in addition to loans from the central and commercial banks, leads to an increase in external debt.
Foreign economic relations of the Philippines are focused on the United States, Japan, China (including Hong Kong), EU countries, Australia and, to a lesser extent, on the countries of Southeast Asia. Foreign direct investment comes mainly from US and Japanese multinationals. After the crisis of 1997-98 they dropped significantly. Assistance (loans and credits) is provided by international financial organizations - the IMF, the World Bank Group, the Asian Development Bank, as well as governments of individual states and private institutions.
The growth rate of foreign trade outstrips the growth rate of GDP. In foreign trade relations (goods and services) of the Philippines, trade with the USA, Japan, China, EU countries, Australia prevails, and from Southeast Asian countries - with Singapore. The export of goods and services (in 2002 it was equal to 35.2 billion US dollars, or almost half of the country's GDP) was dominated by the export of goods. From Ser. 1980s electronic components occupy the first place in merchandise exports: in 2001, out of 31.2 billion US dollars, they accounted for 16.8 billion. Among traditional exports, its largest items are: coconut palm products, abaca fiber, raw sugar, copper concentrates . Merchandise imports in 2002 amounted to $35.5 billion; half of its value fell on capital equipment and 1/10 - on fuel and energy raw materials, mainly oil. The rest of the imports were dominated by food (cereals).
As a result of the monetary and financial crisis of 1997-98, the national currency was seriously devalued. The peso exchange rate against the US dollar has significantly exceeded the pre-crisis level. 1 US dollar equals 53.5 pesos (June 2003).
Science and culture of the Philippines
In the field of science, the National Research Council of the Philippines and the National Science Administration are the most important coordinating centers. From Ser. 1970s the Philippine Center for Basic Research at the University of the Philippines operates, coordinating the scientific activities of various universities and other scientific institutions. The Center participates in the development of state programs for the development of science. The main sources of funding for science are the state budget and assistance from the governments of individual countries and international organizations. Practical research is carried out mainly in large corporations. Leading universities are the State University of the Philippines, private ones are St. Thomas University, Manila Ateneo, Silliman University. Science lacks funds to finance it.
Education is led by the Ministry of Education and Culture. State institutions of higher learning are governed by Councils of Regents. Primary education is public, compulsory and free. The secondary school is 95% private, the higher school is 80%. The lack of state funding of the education system hinders its development. Almost 84% of public spending on education goes to primary school, approx. 15% - to the secondary and 1% - to the higher. AT primary school in 2002, about 15 million children aged 7-12 studied, in the secondary - 6 million, in the higher, including colleges - St. 2.5 million
For a long period (almost 400 years), the Philippines was the object of Westernization, which had a profound impact on the development of spiritual culture, in which foreign cultural values brought from the West were partially rejected, partially assimilated by the Filipinos in accordance with their worldview and aesthetic experience. The modern spiritual culture of the Philippines is marked by the growth of "cultural nationalism", the search for identity and cultural identity of the Filipinos. In the Constitution of the Philippines national culture defined as "unity in diversity". The state encourages freedom of creativity, supports cultural figures and creative associations through a system of grants, scholarships, etc. outside the country. His literary works and journalism had a decisive influence on the development of the national identity of the Filipinos, although he wrote mainly in Spanish. Modern Philippine literature is rich in names, genres, trends. English-language and Tagalog-language literature stands out in terms of large-scale and depth of subject matter, highly artistic style (literature in regional languages is also developing). Many works of writers and poets writing in English and Tagalog are published in the USA and Europe, including Russia. Major names in English-language prose are N.V. Gonzalez, Nick Joaquin, poets H. Lansang Jr., R. Tinio, F. Cruz and many others. The largest figure in Tagalog-language literature is the poet and short story writer A.V. Hernandez (1903-70), on whose works generations of modern writers were brought up. The Spaniards also noted the unusual giftedness of the Filipinos in the visual arts, their special sense of color (the colors of the tropics). Visual arts of the Philippines 20th century. up to the present day, it absorbs a variety of influences: from academicism, realism, impressionism, abstractionism, various modern avant-garde movements to a kind of Philippine primitivism. The most famous names in the visual arts of the Philippines: artists C. Francisco, V. Manansala, A. Luz, Anita Magsaysay-Ho, sculptors N. Abueva, S. Saprid and others. The history of the country is reflected in the architecture of Philippine cities: each era left its symbols (Spanish baroque of the 16th-17th centuries, neoclassicism of the early 20th century, constructivism of the 1930s, modern high-rise buildings of business districts, for example, Makati in Greater Manila). The most famous Filipino architects of the 1970-90s. - L. Loksin, S. Consio.
However, new expeditions followed from the 1530s. Members of the expedition of López de Villalobos in 1543 named the Felipinas archipelago in honor of the Spanish prince and later King Philip II.
1565- The colonization of the Philippines was continued by the conquistador Miguel Lopez de Legazpi.
At the beginning of 1565, the Spaniards ravaged Mariana Islands, sailed the islands of Barbudas and Ladrones and on February 13 saw the Philippines. We safely landed on the island of Cebu and made contact with its inhabitants.
Unlike Magellan, who was attacked and killed by the natives,
On March 16, 1565, Lopez de Legaspi managed to conclude a ritual agreement - sandugo, with the local leader Sikanuta, the leader of the Philippine island of Bohol.
Sandugo is a ritual blood contract. The participants in the ritual drank wine to which the blood of Legazpi and Sikatuna, who concluded the agreement, was added. Sandugo is seen as the conclusion of a blood brotherhood between Spaniards and Filipinos.
Legazpi founded the first Spanish settlement on Cebu
It is believed that the city was founded in 1565 on the very spot where Magellan landed 44 years earlier. Remarkably, Legaspi discovered on the island the icon of the Holy Infant Jesus, left by Magellan, and which was revered locals. Later, this icon was kept as a valuable relic in the monastery of Cebu.
During the six years leading up to the founding of Manila, Cebu remained the main European settlement in the Philippines. Built in 1567, the fortress of St. Peter (Fort San Pedro) remained the bastion of Spanish rule in the southern Philippines until the end of the 19th century. Also, it is from the island of Cebu that the history of Christianity in the Philippines begins. Magellan installed a wooden cross in Cebu. The remains of the original cross are embedded in another, black cross made of tindalo wood. The cross is now kept in the Basilica of Santo Niño (Holy Child Jesus). In 1595, the University of San Carlos was founded.
Using this bridgehead, Lopez de Legazpi sent ships to explore the northern part of the Philippines.
Despite skirmishes with Chinese pirates, he began to baptize the natives in the north of Luzon and on June 24, 1571 founded a new capital there - Manila, as the Metropolis for the colony. A city on the island of Luzon is named after López de Legazpi.
Administratively, the Philippines was declared part of the Spanish colony. New Spain and were governed by a governor subordinate to the Mexican Viceroy. The population rapidly converted to the Catholic faith, and by the 1620s, most of it was Christianized. Vast territories and parishes came under the control of religious orders (Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits). In 1578 a Catholic bishop established himself in Manila, and in 1595 an archbishop. The adoption of Christianity marked the beginning of the creation of an education system in a European way. From 1593, books began to be printed in the Philippines (mainly of religious content). Already in the first years of colonial rule, new educational institutions were organized, and in 1611 the first St. Thomas University was opened, but Filipinos were not allowed there until the end of the century. However, the culture of the country has undergone significant Spanishization. Spanish and Catholicism became widespread, with the exception of the southern rebellious islands inhabited by Muslims. Established sea communication Acapulco - Manila.
The Spaniards introduced in the Philippines the system of “encomiendas” operating in their American colonies - estates transferred to individuals, orders or directly to the crown. Encomendero collected a house tax (tributo) from the population in his favor. The final system of land tenure took shape in the first half of the 17th century. Hacienda became the main type of landlord ownership, and sharecropping became the main form of labor exploitation. Economically, the Philippines was a loss-making colony and received substantial subsidies from Mexico.
By the end of the 16th century Manila became the host shopping mall East Asia, on trade with China, India and the East Indies. Galleons with cargo from the Philippines, including gold, constantly plied between the Philippines and the islands of New Spain. They were often attacked by English pirates. Between 1600 and 1663 there were constant skirmishes with the Dutch and Moro pirates.
The arbitrariness and violence of the colorizers caused powerful but unsuccessful uprisings (in 1574 and 1587-1588 near Manila, in 1622 on the islands of Bohol and Leyte, in 1639 in the Cagayan Valley, in 1649-1650 on the islands of Leyte and Mindanao, in 1660 –1661 in Central Luzon).
Spain had to wage a stubborn struggle with other states to maintain its dominance over the Philippines. At the end of the 16th century The Japanese ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi laid claim to the islands, and the Spaniards were forced to pay tribute to him. In 1600-1601, 1609-1611, 1616-1617, 1644-1645, Dutch warships blockaded the shores of the archipelago, but were never able to capture it. There were constant skirmishes with the Moro pirates.
The Moros themselves trace their origins to the legendary seyyid Mohammed Kabungsawan of Hadhramaut, who arrived in the Philippines from Johor. It is obvious that the Moro peoples were formed on the basis of the local population with the participation of immigrants from Malaysia. Some moved from the island of Kalimantan. Malay merchants brought Islam to the Sulu Islands in the 15th century. At first it was accepted by the feudal elite, then it spread among the common population. In the 15th century, early sultanates. The first sultanate was Jolo, with Jolo as its capital. These were warlike peoples. From the Samal people, for example, many pirates came out. The Muslim sultanates in the southern part of the archipelago constantly attacked the Spanish forces and garrisons ("Moro wars"), and only in the 18th century. balance of power in the area
From the beginning of the 17th century residents were ordered to perform labor service (polo) and forcibly deliver goods to the authorities. Famine, which affected entire villages and provinces, and the cruelty of the detentions led to an increase in mortality. During 1621-1655 the population of the colony decreased from 611 thousand to 505 thousand people. The decrease in the number of workers was one of the reasons for the abolition of the system of working off in the 1660s. By the end of the 17th century. the encomienda system was replaced by a poll tax in favor of the crown.
Military threats contributed to the strengthening of the centralization of government and contributed to the final formalization of the administrative structure of the Philippines. The functions and power of the governor-general were expanded. The country was divided into provinces headed by alcaldes - military captains. The provinces were divided into districts, and those - into rural volosts (barangays). The management of the districts and barangays was entrusted to the Filipinos.
1762- British occupation. The British East India Company, sending 13 ships and 6830 soldiers, took possession of Manila, breaking the resistance of a small Spanish garrison of 600 people. The company entered into an agreement with the Sultan of Sulu. However, the British failed to extend their power even to the territory of Luzon. After the end of the war, they left Manila in 1764, and in 1765 they completed the evacuation from the Philippine Islands. The islands were returned to Spain. British occupation gave impetus to new anti-Spanish uprisings
Muslims and the local Chinese diaspora were opposed to the Spaniards. The enemies of Spain intensified the national liberation movement.
Uprisings began: in Central Luzon (led by J. Palaris) and in northwestern Luzon (led by D. Silang). They were hard to suppress. Since 1744, an uprising led by F. Dagokhoy continued on Bohol Island, with which the Spaniards could not cope for 85 years. One of the forms of protest was the emergence of numerous sectarian movements of the messianic type.
1778–1787- Governor-General José Basco y Vargas launched important reforms. The first steps were taken to develop the production of export crops - sugar cane, indigo, spices, cotton, cocoa, coffee, to create a textile and tobacco industry, to develop mineral resources.
1781- The Philippines were separated into a separate colony. The following year, the authorities imposed a government monopoly on the tobacco trade.
1785- The Royal Philippine Company was established, which was allowed direct trade between the islands and the metropolis. In 1789, the port of Manila was opened to free trade, and although this decision was reversed in 1792, the Spanish authorities were no longer able to stop the commercial expansion of European countries and the United States to the Philippines.
During the years of the Spanish Revolution (1808-1814), liberal-minded officials appeared in the Philippines, and there was a certain easing of the government regime. In the educated layers, the ideas of equalizing the rights of the Filipinos with the Spaniards began to spread. In 1810 the islands were represented in the Spanish Cortes by two Spanish officials and a Creole merchant.
In 1834–1837 a representative of the indigenous Filipino population (lawyer J.F. Lekaros) sat in the Spanish Parliament. But already the constitution of 1837 declared the Philippines a crown colony, and their representation in the Cortes was abolished. From the 1850s, the Spaniards set about conquering the Muslim South: by the 1870s they had succeeded in conquering Sula; the capture of Mindanao was never completed until the end of Spanish rule.
In the 19th century The Philippine economy has undergone important changes.
1815 - Stopped gallion flights. In 1830 - The monopolies of the Royal Company were abolished, and in 1882 the tobacco monopoly.
Private Spanish merchants were allowed on the islands, more and more merchants from Great Britain, France and the USA, who soon pushed out Spanish competitors and achieved the actual and then official opening of Manila (1834) and other ports (1855-1860) for foreign trade. This stimulated the production of export crops, the production of handicrafts (fabrics and embroideries) for export, and the development of urban manufactories (cigars, etc.). Chinese and Filipino Entrepreneurship Grows
In the XIX century. Filipino intelligentsia emerged. Its development was also given impetus by the education reform of 1863, which expanded the access of the indigenous population to educational institutions. In 1869, the Reform Junta was formed in Manila.
Has gained great popularity. a movement for the equalization of the rights of Filipino and Spanish priests, led by priests José Maria Burgos, Jacinto Zamora and Mariano Gomez. The priest Apolinario de la Cruz, after the prohibition of the order he created, led a powerful peasant uprising in 1842-1843. A great response was caused by the uprising of the workers of the arsenal in Cavite in Central Luzon, supported by the soldiers and the surrounding peasants. The participants in the movement not only protested against the distribution of the poll tax arsenal to the workers, but also opposed Spanish rule. The movement was suppressed. The authorities executed not only the participants, but also the priests of Burgos, Zamora and Gomez, who turned into national heroes.
Supporters of reforms (equal rights with the metropolis, the introduction of democratic freedoms, etc.) created their societies in Spain (Spanish-Philippine circle 1882-1883) and in the Philippines themselves (the propagandist junta, 1888). The first nationalist organizations arose in the form of Masonic lodges (Solidarity in Spain from 1889, Nilad and other lodges in the Philippines after 1891).
Organizations that set as their goal the liberation of the Philippines from Spain. In 1892
